Cooperative Extension Service The University of Georgia College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences
	4-H Forestry
	field day manual

Georgia's environmental quality and economic health depend upon forest resources. Jobs, families, trees, and forest values all grow together in Georgia.

PDF
Revised 2000

Table of Contents

Introduction
General Information
General Rules and Regulations: Georgia 4-H Forestry Field Days
Contest Events
Score Sheet
Glossary of Forestry Terms
Tree and Forest Concepts
Summary of Laws and Regulations Affecting Forests and Range Land
References

Lonnie E. Varnedoe, Jr., Kim D. Coder, David J. Moorhead
Extension Forest Resources

Introduction

The 4-H Forestry Field Day Contests include a number of competitive events in which each member of a three- or four-person team competes in all the events. The events include:

• Tree Identification
• Estimation of Tree Measurements
• Compass and Pacing (Juniors - pacing only)
• Forest Insect and Disease Identification
• Forest Site Evaluation (State Contest Only) Team Event

No 4-H Record Books are required for participation in this contest. The team members do not have to be enrolled in the forestry project; however, this would be highly desirable.

The objectives of this team competition are to develop abilities and attitudes that help build better citizens and leaders. Participants should also increase their knowledge of trees and forests, and develop some skills in forestry related activities. They should gain a better understanding of, and appreciation for, our forest resources and how they contribute to our economy and quality of life.

Who can participate in the 4-H Forestry Field Day Contests? Any 4-H Club member may participate as a forestry team member. Girls and boys from both urban and rural areas may participate. Competition, however, will be at two levels -- senior and junior. Cloverleaf members may compete as junior team members.

This training manual is designed to provide information for both junior and senior team members who each participates at different levels of competition. Seniors participate at advanced levels in three of the events. These include the following:

• Use of the compass in conjunction with the pacing event.
• Use of a different tree, forest insect, and disease information list.
• Forest Site Evaluation (Whole team event at the State contest only)

The levels of competition for this event may be on both inter- and intra-county competition levels to encourage the selection of the best team members at both the senior and junior levels. District/area competition will be held between county teams for both juniors and seniors. State competition is at the senior level only. The top team in the state, at the discretion of the head forestry judge, will compete in the National 4-H Forestry Invitational in West Virginia the following July or August.

Coaching help for participants may be obtained at the local level. None of the technical skills are too complex for county extension agents. However, there are probably many willing volunteers in each community. Teams in the past have been very successful using local foresters who may be self-employed, state or federal foresters or industry foresters. Even an untrained local leader who is willing to learn along with the 4-H'ers can do the job. Using local foresters is strongly encouraged.

It is critical that volunteer leaders carefully read this manual to assure the students receive correct information about preparing for this event.

The equipment needed for this project is not elaborate. The events have been chosen so that a minimum of equipment is needed and a minimum of "setting-up" time is required. The equipment needed for a complete contest is as follows:

• Tree Scale Stick (tree measurement sticks and International ¹/₄ rule volume tables).
• Hand compass (most accurate allowed is Silva Ranger Type 15 without slope measuring arrow).
• Tape (100 foot tape would be desirable but shorter tape will do).
• Small flags or markers (for marking the ends of compass course).

General Information

The Georgia 4-H Forestry Field Day contests and the National 4-H Forestry Invitational are competitive events of forestry knowledge and skills. The national meeting is currently held annually around the end of July at Jackson's Mill State 4-H Camp in Weston, West Virginia.

There are district/area and state competitions in Georgia with the state winners usually going to the National contest. The purpose of the Georgia 4-H Forestry Field Day contests and the National 4-H Forestry Invitational is to provide opportunities for 4-H Forestry members to:

• develop leadership talents and to work toward achieving character development and effective citizenship;
• develop appreciation of the need and importance of conserving woodland as a source of products and services necessary for quality living; and
• acquire information and understanding of practical forestry skills in forest management and utilization of forest products.

Although competitive in nature, the Georgia 4-H Forestry Field Days and the National 4-H Forestry Invitational are managed as an extensive forestry educational experience. They provide an opportunity for exploration of the broad aspects of forestry. The events encourage and promote better forestry knowledge for 4-H members, volunteer leaders, and extension agents at local, county, district, state, and national levels. The setting, contests, leadership, and any supplementary events are all directed to this end.

There are many general and specific values and perceptions developed through these events. Preparation of youths into teams for this 4-H Forestry Field Day helps to accomplish the following:

• presents, identifies, and locates the renewable resources of the forest environment such as forest products, water, outdoor recreation, wildlife, and selected grazing;
• establishes a natural resource value system for participating 4-H members;
• helps 4-H landowners understand the techniques of managing their land and improving the understanding of 4-H'ers as potential landowners; and
• furnishes facts and scientific procedures for future adults. 4-H'ers will learn to weigh and understand renewable resource management needs.

Furthermore, the competitive team approach which is used in the Georgia 4-H Forestry Field Days and the National 4-H Forestry events, develops at all levels, the following benefits:

• intensified learning opportunities using correct management information and factors concerning forest resources;
• standardizes, or presents, similar references, materials, guides, and understanding of tree identification, forest measurements, and use of silvicultural problems of management, insects, diseases, etc.;
• encourages rural, suburban and urban teams to share ideas and visit potential management areas with a new perspective of 4-H forestry;
• provides new insight to senior members who serve as team leaders with younger 4-H members in beginning forestry projects;
• allows team members to formulate goals and discuss management procedures with other
  4-H'ers and with professional land managers; and
• provides a new dimension for older 4-H member activities and incentive for younger members beyond the present project-oriented program.

General Rules and Regulations: Georgia 4-H Forestry Field Days

I. Contestants and Eligibility

1. Each county is allowed to bring up to 20 (twenty) senior and 20 (twenty) junior contestants to district/area competition. At district/area contests, only the top three scores within the senior and junior divisions for any one county will be recorded. The top three scorers from a county will comprise all or part of the county team sent on to state competition (if selected for state competition). A team will consist of no less than three and no more than four entrants who are 4-H members in their county during the current year.
2. All senior level contestants must be attending classes in the 9^th grade and above, and must not have passed their 19^th birthday on January 1 of the program year.
3. An individual may enter the National 4-H Forestry Invitational event only once.
4. All contestants must meet all rules and regulations put forward in the current Georgia
   4-H Project Award Guidebook available in each county.

II. General Contest Rules

1. Only contestants and designated officials shall be on or within the perimeter of an event. Once a contestant has started an event, he/she will not be allowed to talk with anyone other than a designated official until completion of that particular event. In team events, team members may openly discuss tasks and solutions.
2. A team may be composed of either three or four members. Team scores will be based on the three highest scoring team members in each contest area. Individual contestants with the highest score will also be selected and recognized.
3. Each team member will bring a clipboard or writing board, pencil, tree scale stick, compass, and calculator. Contestants are encouraged to wear field clothing.
4. Behavior becoming 4-H'ers and citizens of the Great State of Georgia will be expected at all times.
5. It is expected that all team members participate in all events to the best of their abilities and talents.
6. The forestry judges reserve the right to remove from competition, contest, venue, and from contest participation any and all contestants, leaders, volunteers, spectators, or teams at his/her discretion.
7. The decisions of the judges are final.

Contest Events

1. Tree Identification

Participants will identify 10 to 25 tree, branch, twig, or leaf specimens. Specimens could include full trees, freshly cut foliage, older foliage, herbarium sheets with pressed foliage, or photographs of foliage. Normally fruit and seeds will not be provided. The complete common name as listed on the contest's official list should be given (for example, "maple" will be incorrect if the tree is "red maple"). Only one-half credit will be given for misspelled, but identifiable, names. Trees will be selected only from the current year's official species list given in the following charts.

Preparation

Number 10 to 25 trees or leaf/branch specimens. These should be from the official species list. Trees or specimens should be considered typical. Juvenile plants and shade leaves should be avoided since they are often larger than normal and have a distorted shape. Each contestant should be given a sheet with numbered blanks for each tree's common name. The complete common name should be reproduced as given on the official species list. No credit is given for partially correct names. Clearly correct but misspelled names get half credit. The person receiving the highest score will be the individual winner. The team with the highest total for the best three participants will be the team winner.

Contest Rules

• Different species of trees have various requirements for good growth. They also differ in merchantability. Therefore, you must be able to identify trees of the forest. All trees to be identified will be taken from the "OFFICIAL SPECIES LIST" below.
• Contestants will be required to identify species from those listed below. Contestants will be judged on the accuracy of identification and the spelling of common names. Scientific names will not be required. Incomplete names will be counted as wrong. Example: "Maple" instead of "Red Maple," or "Shortleaf" instead of "Shortleaf Pine" will be counted wrong.
• Contestants will be given a specific time to identify the tree specimens and record the information on the score sheet. An official species list will be available for each contest.
• Points will be given for the correct common name. One-half of the points will be deducted for each name misspelled. The common name must be the one used on the official species list. All final scores from this event may be weighted to match final scores from other events.
• Samples can be photographs, fresh, or pressed herbarium specimens of leaf samples. Samples of leaf/branch cuttings will be used if available and of acceptable quality to the judges. Fruits, nuts, seeds, and flowers will not normally be provided on the contest but may be available.

Official Tree Species List for Juniors

The following tree species list is to be used for the 4-H Forestry Field Day Junior Contests. It is arranged alphabetically by scientific names in order to group similar trees together. The Junior list includes 44 tree species. References are listed in the back of this manual.

Official Tree Species List for Seniors

2. Tree Measurement Estimation

Participants will estimate the saw timber volume in up to five (5) designated trees to an 8" (eight inches) top diameter (outside the bark).

Contestants may use an official cruise or scale stick with no modifications. Diameter tapes, calipers, and other instruments will not be allowed. The person obtaining the total volume closest to that calculated by the judges will be the individual winner. The amount that each team member missed the correct volume will be determined. The team with the highest combined score of its best three participants will be the winner.

Allow only one contestant at each tree at the same time. When they have calculated the total volume in all trees, an appropriate expansion factor should be applied to yield a per acre estimate of saw timber volume. The final answer should be circled and the sheet turned in.

Contest Rules

• Merchantable heights will be determined to the nearest full half-log for saw timber. A half-log is defined as 8' (eight feet) long. The minimum basal log will be 10" (ten inches) diameter breast height (DBH), one log merchantable length, and have a minimum tip diameter of 8"(eight inches). See the following section on tree measures for details.
• Contestants must determine diameter and associated volume to the nearest 1" (one inch) class.
• Record sawlog volumes as found in the standard International ¹/₄ (rule) tree scale volume table (Form class 78) provided by the contest judge (see page 11). Do not use the volume table found on the tree scale stick.
• Contestants must be able to compute volumes on a per acre basis from ¹/₁₀, ¹/₅, or ¹/₄ acre sample plots. Foresters seldom measure every tree when estimating volumes per acre. The concept of an expansion factor should be emphasized during contestant training.

Practice Preparation

Select and number five to ten saw-timber sized trees (10 inches DBH and larger). If possible, measure diameters with a diameter tape and merchantable height with an altimeter or clinometer. Careful "stick" measurements are acceptable. Avoid borderline trees, that is, those trees with a diameter or height that might easily be thrown one inch larger or smaller or one-half log higher or shorter. Give each contestant a scale stick and a sheet numbered with spaces for DBH, height, and volume. The following example may be used.

For each tree, diameter breast height (DBH) and merchantable height in 16 foot logs (to the full half-log) is measured and entered on the table. Then board foot volume for each tree is determined using the Tree Volume Table (below). The volume for the five trees is added together for the subtotal. Multiply by the appropriate number to bring the value to a per acre basis.

Measurement of Standing Trees:

Purpose: Standing trees are measured to obtain an estimate of the amounts of various forest products that might be cut from the tree. These measurements to estimate volume are important because most timber sales are based on volume. In order to make decisions on managing a forest stand, estimates of total tree volume, volume per acre, and volume by product are necessary.

Forest Products: The volume of products such as poles, pilings, sawlogs, veneer logs, pulpwood and fence posts can be determined from tree measurements.

Method: Since all tree stems are basically a part of a cylinder, they have a diameter and height which may be measured. Diameter of standing trees is measured, by time-honored custom, at 4¹/₂ feet above ground on the uphill side of the tree. This is termed "diameter breast height" and is abbreviated as DBH. Height of a standing tree might be measured as total (the entire height from ground line to the top) or merchantable. Merchantable height varies, depending on the product which might be cut. Trees which will produce sawlogs will have different merchantable height criteria than pulpwood trees. The minimum top diameter is fixed by certain product specifications. If a tree is to be cut into logs, the lengths cut will vary, depending upon the demand of the mill to which the logs will go. This is true of sawlogs as well as veneer logs. As a result, total merchantable length will vary.

Tools: The tree scale stick is used to measure diameter and height in the 4-H Forestry Contest. Figure 1 depicts how the tree scale stick is used to find the diameter.

Figure 1. Method of using tree scale stick to obtain tree diameter as viewed from above. Do Not Move Head, Just Eye.

Use the flat side of the stick, indicated "Diameter of Tree (in inches)." Hold the stick level at 25-inches from the eye, against the tree, at a height of 4¹/₂ feet above ground perpendicular to the line of sight. Practice is needed to find both the 4¹/₂ foot point in relation to your height, and the 25-inch distance to your eye. When the stick is placed against a tree, close one eye, sight at the left or zero end. The stick and the tree bark should be in the same line of sight.

Now, DO NOT MOVE YOUR HEAD -- just move your eye across the stick to the right-hand edge of the tree. Read the tree diameter to the nearest inch. Hold the stick perpendicular to the tree.

Height is measured as follows: Pace out 66 feet from the base of the tree to a point where the entire tree can be seen. Hold the stick upright so that the "Number of 16 foot logs" side faces you. The zero end should point toward the ground. Plumb the stick at 25 inches from the eye. Sight the zero end to appear to rest at a 1' (one foot) stump height. DO NOT MOVE YOUR HEAD OR THE STICK. Look up the stick to the point where the top of the last merchantable cut would be made in the tree.

Figure 2. Method of using tree scale stick to obtain tree height. Do Not Move Head, Just Eye.

Merchantable tree cut height for conifers in this contest is 8" (eight inches) top diameter outside the bark OR the first major fork (a major fork is where a stem/branch is larger that ¹/₃ the diameter of the main stem and the crotch is "v-shaped").

Merchantable tree height for hardwoods in this contest is 8" (eight inches) top diameter outside the bark OR the first major fork (a major fork is where a stem/branch is larger than ¹/₃ the diameter of the main stem and the crotch is "v-shaped") OR a major structural defect OR first major branch.

Read sawlogs to the full one-half log. Do not make a log longer than it actually is. For example, record a 2³/₄ log tree as 2¹/₂, not as a 3-log tree. Do not add length that is not present.

Practice on pacing is needed to find the 66-foot point. The 25-inch distance from eye to stick is the same as in measuring tree diameter.

Volume Tables

These are a composite of actual volumes on an average basis. Once the tree measurement is determined, enter the appropriate table from the left with the tree diameter (DBH). Move across to the right to the column containing tree merchantable height at the top. At the intersection of these two points will be that tree's volume. Read and record each tree volume directly and separately. For contest purposes, do not use the volume table on the tree scale stick.

3. Pacing

Pacing, which is determining distance by walking along a line, is an important tool for the forester. Once you learn the average length of your pace you can easily and rapidly estimate distances in the woods and field. In the 4-H Forestry Field Day Contest, Juniors will pace between given points and estimate the total distance between them.

Determining Your Pace

Measure and set stakes 100 feet apart on a generally level field, then walk from one end of the 100-foot line to the other with a natural walking gait. Do this at least five times, each time recording the number of steps or paces (2 steps = 1 pace) it took you to cover the 100-foot distance. Add these up and divide by the number of trips to determine the average number of paces or steps to cover 100 feet. Divide 100 feet by the average number of paces or stops to determine the number of feet per pace or step. See Table 4.

In this example, each pace is equal to 2' (two feet). With that information distances can be determined. For example, to step off the 66-feet from the base of a tree to determine its height using a tree scale stick, it would take 33 paces (33 paces x 2 ft/pace=66 feet).

In the pacing portion of the contest contestants will pace between several points or stakes and will be asked to determine the total distance between them as shown in the following illustration.

In Table 5, the total distance between the three stations is 206 feet, which is the answer you should write on your score card.

Compass and Pacing for Seniors

Participants will be given three (3) compass bearings and distances. From a designated starting point they will follow these bearings and distances. Only a hand compass will be allowed. The end of each participant's course will be designated by a letter or number. The end point must then be recorded. A course longer than 200 feet is desirable. The person ending the course nearest the correct point will be the individual winner. The distance each individual misses the termination point will be added together. The team with the lowest total for its best three participants will be the winner.

Preparation

After selecting the event site, the distance of the course can be determined. Place starting stakes and determine several bearings and distances. The length of each course should be approximately the same. Each course should contain three bearings. Compasses may be provided, or each contestant may bring his/her own. The judge's compass will be the standard. Each contestant is responsible for comparing his/her own compass with the judge's compass standard. A 100-foot distance may be marked off so contestants may check their pace. Tell each contestant where they should start and give them a card or sheet with the three bearings and distances. The termination point should be marked so that the judge can check it for accuracy. The judge will record the distance of the termination point from the point where it should have been.

Materials and Equipment

Silva ranger-type compasses, score sheets, flagging

Contest Rules

• Determine your number of paces per 100 feet on a practice course prior to the contest.
• Instructions will be given to the contestants prior to beginning the course. The contestant will do the following:
• Complete line measurements (distance and bearing)
• Record measurements on score sheet
• Return course sheets to official
• Contestants can use only the following equipment:
• Silva ranger-type compass
• Pencil and clip board
• Score sheet, electronic calculators
• The course layout will consist of three lines. Contestants will pace the lines using a com-pass for directions. Bearings and distances will be followed and the ending point identified.
• The time limit for this event is at the discretion of the forestry judge(s).

4. Insect and Disease Identification

Contestants will be asked to identify forest insects and disease specimens, or samples of their symptoms or signs. Samples may include bark showing characteristics, bark beetle tunnels, pitch tubes, egg masses or other distinctive insect and disease signs. All specimens will come from the Official List of Insects and Diseases for Juniors OR Seniors as appropriate. The list has 10 forest diseases and 15 forest insects. The Senior list includes those on the Junior list plus additional species for a total of 21 diseases and 30 insects.

For the contest, approximately five insects and five diseases will be selected from the official list. As with tree identification, judging is based on accuracy of identification and correct spelling of complete common names. Incomplete or misspelled, but identifiable common names will receive partial credit.

The following insect and disease list is to be used for the 4-H Forestry Field Day Contests. It is arranged alphabetically by common names. Only the common names listed below are accepted in the contest. Capitalization of common names is not required.

Official List of Insects and Diseases for Juniors

Official List of Insects and Diseases for Seniors

5. Forest Evaluation Contest

A Team Event for Seniors
(State Level Only)

Introduction

"Every acre of land devoted to its best use" -- this is an idea that land owners have had about agricultural land for many years. Level and slightly rolling land for row crops and grain, rolling and better upland slopes for pasture and meadow. The general idea about forest land is that forests will grow well on all lands not suited for other crops. This is not correct. There are excellent, good, fair, and poor sites for timber production just as there are different kinds of farm crop land. There are forest lands that will economically support cultural practices and permanent physical improvements and other stands in the same area might barely pay land taxes. There are acres that can be harvested every 10 years and there are other areas that may never produce commercial timber.

Forest Evaluation is based on the premise that trees will be harvested, now or in the future, to maximize the goal(s) of a specified landowner.

This contest has been developed to provide contestants an opportunity to learn first hand of the characteristics affecting the growth of the forest crop. It is divided into four parts: I. Site Evaluation, II. Stand Evaluation, III. Recommended Practices, and IV. Inventory. To successfully compete in this contest, the participant must carefully study the material outlined on the following pages. Each of these parts is closely related to the others, so it is very important to gain an understanding of this relationship.

Silviculture

Much has been written about trees after they are grown and stands established -- of their requirements and the factors that effect these requirements. The study of these same factors and requirements is a branch of forestry which deals with the establishment, development, care and reproduction of stands of timber. A successful tree grower must know how to adjust or compensate for these factors effectively, as well as to avoid making serious mistakes in his/her program.

SITE

The site is the habitat or environment in which plant or a plant community lives. A number of factors will determine whether a plant may exist and reach maturity in a sound, healthy and sturdy state. Some of the factors that determine the desirability of a site are aspect, slope position, percent of slope, and others of a more technical nature.

ASPECT

Aspect is a compass reading facing down a slope; the direction water would run gives the compass direction. Usually a site located on a north-eastern exposure is regarded as favorable and on the opposite, or south-western as rather unfavorable. Actually, taken from a compass reading, an area from North 45 degrees West to South 45 degrees East is considered a good growing site. An illustration of the desirable northern exposure and the less desirable southern exposure is indicated in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Aspect -- Desirable Exposure Sites.

A combination of factors and conditions of a technical nature are involved in the exposure of a site, but for the purposes of this guide, moisture and how it is used or lost shall be the deter-mining factor in exposure and in aspect.

Exposure is just what the term implies; it means that the surface of the land is open or exposed to the forces of the sun, wind and rain. The exposed site loses more moisture by trans-piration and evaporation because of the forces of the sun and wind. A northern exposure is more protected, there is less moisture lost and the trees will grow more rapidly and desirable.

SLOPE POSITION

Slope position is determined only for soils that are not flat. The positions are classified as upper ¹/₃, middle ¹/₃ and lower ¹/₃. Ridge tops or level plateaus and bottom land soils are class-ified separately in land capability.

SLOPE PERCENT

Slope percent is determined by the feet of rise or fall in each 100 horizontal feet of land and is broken down into categories according to steepness which ranges from 0-20 percent, 20-40 per-cent, and 40 percent plus. One instrument that can be used to measure slope percent is called an Abney Level. Figure 4 below illustrates a 20 percent slope.

Figure 4. The simple formula used to calculate the percent (%) of slope is shown below:

AC/BC x 100 = % slope 5/25 x 100 = 20% slope

Forest Land Capability Classes

Forest land is divided into four categories: excellent, good, fair and poor. Much of the information given through site requirements (aspect, slope, position, slope percent) helps to determine the classification.

Class I or Excellent is very good from all points of view. This is practically level forest land, it is fertile and holds water well. There is little erosion, it is well drained, but not droughty. This land will produce a good stand of timber.

Class II or Good is usually gently sloping. In some cases there are drainage problems which may affect tree growth.

Class III or Fair usually has a greater slope percent and could be fairly steep. This slope, together with associated factors of shallow soil and low fertility gives this land its classification of Fair.

Class IV or Poor may be very steep with shallow soil. The site may be rocky with low soil fertility. It can either be extremely wet or dry. Good examples are ridge tips and swamps.

Stocking

Stocking and stand-density are two terms which can be defined the same and used inter-changeably. Both refer to the proportion of a forested area that is covered by trees. In classifying a stand, it is indicated as Well-stocked, Over-stocked, or Under-stocked.

Well-Stocked: A well-stocked forest has trees that are distributed as uniformly as possible to ideal conditions or such that each stem has just enough room to grow and do well.

Over-Stocked: Over-stocked stands have too many trees that crowd each other competing for available soil nutrients, water, and sunlight.

Under-stocked: An Under-stocked stand has too few trees on it to optimally produce the desired results. In forest stands, the trees on under stocked sites tend to be large-crowned and low-grade for most wood products.

Stocking and Basal Area

Basal area can be quickly determined using optical instruments. This eliminates the establishment of plots and individual tree measurements. A wedge prism is commonly used to determine basal area. Light is distorted as it passes through the prism. This distortion causes objects that are viewed through the prism to be displaced toward the thin edge of the prism. The amount of displacement is related by a mathematical factor to basal area. A 10 factor prism is most common as it allows data collected from each sample point to be converted to an acre basis by multiplying by 10. Prisms are relatively inexpensive and can be obtained through forestry supply catalogues.

Prism Sampling Procedure

• Select sampling points within the timber stand. The number of sampling points depends on tract size, the variation in stocking and the degree of accuracy desired. The more sample points taken, the greater the accuracy.
• Hold the prism over the sample point at a comfortable distance from your eye, keeping the top edge of the prism horizontal (on level ground and slopes to 10 percent), and the face of the prism at right angles to your line of sight.
• Closing one eye, sight through the prism to each tree at breast height. Count the number of tally trees as you rotate the prism, not your eye, over the sample point.
• Multiply the number of trees tallied at the sample point by the basal area factor of the prism (10 for a 10 factor prism) to determine basal area in square feet per acre. Do this for each sample point; then average all sample points to get a basal area estimate for the tract.

Figure 5. How to determine which tree is in or out using a prism.

CROWN CLASS

Trees can be Dominant (tallest), Codominant (shares top of forest with another species), Intermediate (gets light filtered from higher trees), or Suppressed (lower trees, gets light filtered through all other trees.)

Commercial Forest Type Description

Pine Type

Across the state, pine represents our most important commercial forest resource. Pine stands are managed to produce a variety of forest products including pulp, poles, saw timber, naval stores, and pine straw. From the Piedmont north, loblolly pine and shortleaf pine are the most common species. In the Coastal Plain, slash pine, loblolly pine, and longleaf pine are found. In each region other less common pine species can occur.

Pines are relatively intolerant to shade and competition so regeneration success requires relatively clear open sites, thus new pine stands are generally regenerated as even-aged, that is all of the new regeneration is established within a short time. Planted stands will have seedlings established in a single year, while stands regenerated naturally from seed will have seedlings developing over 2 to 5 years.

Regeneration

Several harvest methods are well-suited for pine regeneration:

Clearcutting is the most common method of harvest and regeneration. After the mature trees are harvested, the site is prepared to plant using mechanical and/or herbicide treatments to remove or kill competing vegetation that would hinder the establishment, survival and growth of the pine seedlings. Generally, 500 to 700 seedlings per acre are planted.

Seed tree and Shelterwood methods use mature trees as the seed source for the new stand. The seed tree method leaves 6 to 10 trees per acre and the shelterwood 20 to 40 trees per acre (12 to 14 inch DBH trees preferred) to provide seeds to regenerate the stand. Understory woody and herbaceous vegetation must be controlled to insure prompt germination and growth of the seedlings. A series of prescribed burns at 2-year intervals before the seed tree or shelterwood cut will control most vegetation. Hardwoods greater than 3 to 5 inches DBH are generally too large to control with fire and may need a herbicide treatment. The decision to use seed tree versus shelterwood depends on species, market conditions, aesthetics and landowner preference. Twenty to forty trees per acre are needed to get good seed distribution over the site. Since the shelterwood method leaves more trees per acre than the seed tree method, it visually has less impact to the site, also more wood is left for the final harvest which may attract more buyers than a seed tree harvest.

For both methods, when 1,000 one-year old seedlings per acre have been established, the overstory seed trees should be removed. If stocking is more than 6,000 seedling per acre after seed tree removal, a precommercial thinning by mowing or chopping can be used leaving one-foot wide rows of seedlings on 8- to 10-foot centers. If densely overstocked stands are not thinned, tree growth rapidly diminishes.

Management

Intermediate treatments which include commercial thinning in planted and naturally regenerated pine stands, are common when average tree size reaches 5 inches DBH. Initial thinnings remove forked, crooked, and diseased pulpwood size stems leaving the best formed trees in the stand to grow into more valuable poles and saw timber. Additional thinning can be made on 5- to 7-year intervals until final harvest.

Fertilizers may be applied at the time of planting, particularly on wet sites deficient in phosphorus. The use of fertilization depends on site quality and understory conditions. Competition control is important otherwise nutrients may be tied up by herbaceous and woody vegetation. Fertilization is also recommended when pine straw is harvested on an annual basis. Nitrogen should be added every 4 to 5 years to maintain site productivity.

Herbicides are used in pine management for site preparation, herbaceous weed control, and for releasing established pines from woody competition. Prescribed fire is also an effective management tool for site preparation and reduction of competing vegetation. Carefully applied prescribed fires can be used to reduce competition, enhance appearance and access, improve habitat for select wildlife, reduce hazardous fuel buildup, and various other uses. Most stands receive their first prescribe burn when the trees are 6 years or older. Burning at 2- to 4-year intervals can effectively reduce competition from woody vegetation.

Oak-Pine Type

This type is found from the Mountains into the Coastal Plain, upland oaks (see oak-hickory type) make up 50 to 75 percent of the stand, with pine constituting 25 to 50 percent of the stocking. This type is one of the transitional stages from pine dominated forests to climax forests of oak and other hardwoods. As pine is harvested or dies from lightning strikes, wind throw, insects and disease, the more tolerant hardwoods claim their place at the expense of pine regeneration. As the pine component continues to decline, the type shifts to oak-hickory.

Regeneration

Clearcutting followed by site preparation for conversion to pine is commonly practiced (see pine type). Generally hardwood densities preclude the use of seed tree and shelterwood methods for pine regeneration unless the hardwoods are controlled by prescribed fire or herbicides.

Group selection harvests creating small openings up to ¹/₂ acre in size will result in hardwood regeneration with some scattered pine. Openings can be planted with pine seedlings followed by herbicide release treatments to increase the valuable pine component.

Management

Several management tools can be used to maintain this type. Commercial thinning and release treatments aimed to promote growth of pine and the more desirable hardwoods in conjunction with group selection regeneration cuts can rehabilitate and maintain the type. These mixed stands are aesthetically pleasing, present low risk to many insect and disease problems, and have commercial value since both pine and hardwood stumpage is in demand across the state. Prescribed fire is not normally recommended, but may be useful in some site preparation activities. Overall, the management of this type requires good inventory data and careful marking and harvesting practices. Past treatments have generally lead to the decline of the type because of exclusive removal of only the most valuable individual trees without providing for regeneration and improvement of the residual stand.

Oak-Hickory Type

This type can contain a variety of oak and other associated species. Common are southern red, white, scarlet, northern red, black, and post oaks. Shagbark, pignut, and mockernut hickories, blackgum, sweetgum, yellow-poplar, beech and other assorted species (including scattered pines) are common in this type. This type represents a transition from the oak-pine type as the pine component declines. (Pine stocking is less than 25 percent; see "Oak-Pine Type.")

While this type contains valuable commercial species, and has value for wildlife and aesthetics, many stands may contain poor quality stems with little commercial value because of past harvesting and utilization practices in which only the highest quality stems were harvested.

Regeneration

Adequate regeneration may be lacking in the understory. Generally 300 well-established seedlings are needed per acre as advanced regeneration.

Clearcuts, which remove not only commercial stems but sever all stems larger than 1 inch in diameter, are efficient and effective in regenerating this type from stump and root sprouts. Site preparation with chemical and mechanical means is not recommended as it will reduce the number and quality of reproduction sprouts. Prescribed burning is not normally recommended, but research indicates it may play an important role in oak regeneration.

Group and single tree selection harvest methods in which trees are cut in groups or singly can be used to create openings to favor regeneration from seeds and sprouts. Group selection openings average ¹/₄ to ¹/₂ acre, while single tree openings are ¹/₁₀ to ¹/₄ acre.

Management

Developing regeneration can be released using single stem herbicide treatments, or mechanical cleanings or thinning. Interplanting seedlings into openings created by single tree selection harvests are not recommended. Generally, selection harvest openings are not large enough to provide adequate sunlight for planted seedling development. Stands can be upgraded by thinning, release, and improvement cuttings to remove poor quality stems, release regeneration, and to favor crop trees.

Upland sites are subject to erosion and care must be taken during road building and harvest operations to protect streams, site quality and other natural resources.

Best hardwood growth occurs on sites that retain deep topsoil, high organic matter, and adequate fertility. The most productive sites occur on lower slopes, toe slopes, and within drainage branches and draws. Pine outproduces hardwoods on ridge tops, upper slopes and on more highly eroded sites and is generally favored over hardwoods for commercial production on these sites.

Cove Hardwood Type

In the southern Appalachian mountains, coves and moist slopes with deep well-drained soils are some of the most productive hardwood sites in the state. Yellow-poplar, basswood, northern red oak, white oak, black oak, white ash, sugar maple, black cherry, and hickories are common associated species.

Regeneration

Various cutting methods are used to regenerate these stands. All depend on the presence of adequate seed sources, seedlings present before harvest as advanced regeneration and the sprouting potential of cut stumps. In some cases herbicides are used to release desirable reproduction before or just after harvest.

Clearcutting is effective particularly with yellow-poplar. Their seeds from previous years' crops remain viable in the litter for 5 to 7 years and will readily germinate when exposed to light and mixed in the mineral soil following logging. Make cuts at least one acre in size to allow maximum light to the forest floor. Other commercial species respond well to clearcutting as well, provided adequate advanced regeneration is present. Generally, 300 established seedlings per acre are sufficiently for most species.

Group selection, where openings of ¹/₄ to ¹/₂ acre in size are created, may be more aesthetically pleasing, particularly on highly visible scenic slopes. Regeneration success depends on the presence of advanced reproduction (see clearcutting), and from sprouts from cut stumps and seed either in-place or from adjacent trees.

Shelterwood leaves seed-producing trees as an overstory providing timber and non-timber benefits. Yellow-poplar, ash, and oak can be reproduced with this method. After regeneration is secured, remove the overstory to release the developing seedlings. A variation of this method is to retain the overstory for long periods and thinning the overstory trees and making improvement and release cuts in the younger understory. Over time, a distinct two-age stand can develop. This variation insures that tree cover is always maintained on the site which may be of importance in recreational and scenic areas.

Management

Thinnings in pulpwood size stands (stand age 15 to 25 years, and stems 5 inches DBH and over) can be valuable. Potential mortality is salvaged, and growth of desirable residual stems is enhanced. Favor well-formed trees with full crowns to maximize growth response. Protect these stands from wildfire.

Bottomland Hardwood Type

This is a diverse type comprised of numerous species throughout the state. In the Piedmont along wider streams and rivers, terraces adjacent to the water courses support highly productive hardwood stands. As you move south in the state into the Coastal Plain, broad stream bottoms, wet flats, sloughs, and marshes (swamps) support nearly pure stands of hardwoods. Common species are swamp chestnut oak and cherrybark oak on rich deep soils along major river and stream terraces. On somewhat more poorly drained sites closer to water's edge, sweetgum and willow oak are common along with various elm, ash, and other hardwoods. On the very poorly drained wet flats and sloughs, overcup oak, water hickory, water and willow oak, black and water tupelo, red maple and cypress are common. In permanent ponds, cypress and water tupelo are often the only trees found.

Fully stocked stands can carry in excess of 120 square feet of basal area. This stocking should be in desirable commercial species. Past cutting practices have often left stands with few high quality stems. If the stand does not contain at least 20, 40, and 60 feet of basal area at ages 20, 30, and 40 years respectively, the stand is a candidate for regeneration.

Regeneration

Several harvest-regeneration systems may be used to regenerate or rehabilitate bottomland hardwood stands.

Clearcutting, being sure to fell all residual stems 1 inch in diameter and larger, is an efficient method to harvest and regenerate stands. Clearcut stands regenerate from sprouts, seeds and advanced regeneration. Generally, more than 450 seedlings of desired species should be present before cutting. However, sprouts from the stumps and roots of harvested trees and saplings usually are the most important source of regeneration. Further site preparation is not required, and practices such as root raking and piling reduce the sprouting potential.

Group Selection involves clearcutting small groups of trees to create an opening for regeneration to develop. Openings may range from ¹/₄ to several acres in size. Advanced reproduction, sprouts and seeds are all important regeneration sources.

Shelterwood provides an overstory of desirable seed producing trees which are retained after harvest to produce seed and provide shelter to developing seedlings and sprouts. Shade from the overstory trees will hamper growth of weeds and other undesirable vegetation until sufficient regeneration is secured (generally 750 to 1,000 stems per acre). Remove the overstory within 2 to 4 years to release developing regeneration.

Management

In all cases, it will take 8 to 12 years for the desirable species in the stand to begin to express dominance over the pioneer species that will quickly occupy the site. Careful inventories in early years of stand development will reveal the presence of desirable regeneration along with a vast array of short-lived species that at first impression seem to completely dominate. However, as these species begin to slow their growth, oak, ash, gum and other longer-lived species "take over" the site. Intermediate treatments are best delayed until this occurs. Then careful thinning can be done to favor development of the best quality and most valuable stems in the stand.

FIRE

Wildfire is a disastrous enemy of the forest. It destroys the duff or litter on the forest floor. In this duff are seeds awaiting germination and these, too, are destroyed. The timber will have scars or scalds on it if it survives a wildfire. A controlled fire (prescribed burn) is a forest management tool used to manipulate vegetation and prevent fuel accumulation.

ORIGIN OF THE STAND

A stand of trees may have originated from any of three sources: first -- a seed, second -- a sprout or coppice, and third -- planted. A forest derived from seed or seedlings may be healthier due to the lack of interference from parent trees. In a sprout or coppice forest, the opposite conditions exist because some diseases such as Dutch Elm Disease and Chestnut Blight are present in the area to attack new trees.

SIZE DISTRIBUTION

In determining the size distribution of a stand all the sizes of stems present are considered. In a good stand, a ratio of saplings, poles, and saw timber should be distributed fairly evenly. Even-aged species may be all of one size or if growing from one size into another, trees may appear in two classes. This is necessary in a sustained yield program. Specific sizes are from 0-1" -- reproduction; from 1-3" -- saplings; from 3-12" -- pole timber; and from 12" plus -- saw timber.

Recommended Practices

The recommended practices will apply to forested areas that need improvement. Multiple land-use should be evident as the forest management process begins.

Using information in the guide, the following checklist or score sheet can be used to determine forest improvement practices necessary to be carried out in the forestry project. This is a sequence of analyzing various aspects of the project leading to an intelligent, reasonable accurate evaluation.

Contest Situation

Competing teams will be given a situation for a designated plot of land used in the event. Teams will be responsible for completing all four parts of Forest Evaluation. Devices and conditions to aid participants in making their decisions will include compass, height measuring scale stick, marked plot boundaries and designated trees for inventory.

At the State Contest, contestants will be told the depth of the soil. They will be responsible for any additional information required to complete the site evaluation. Contestants will be required to evaluate the crown class of designated trees.

Scoring: This event is equal in point values to the other four events. This event is a TEAM event.

Forest Evaluation Score Sheet

Plot Tally Work Sheet
Plot DBH Tally Card			Relation of Basal Area and Average DBH to Stocking
Tree	DBH
1.	________
2.	________
3.	________
4.	________
5.	________
6.	________
7.	________
8.	________
9.	________
10.	________
11.	________
12.	________
13.	________
14.	________
15.	________
-
Average Plot DBH _________			Plot Basal Area __________
Determine stocking from the plot basal area measurement and average DBH calculated above. Locate Average Tree Diameter at the top of the stocking graph, follow the corresponding line down to the intersection of the plot Basal Area per acre value line. Read the stocking class inside the graph.

III. Practices Recommended:

Glossary of Forestry Terms

Abney Level: An instrument used to determine the percent of slope on a site.

Aspect: A compass reading taken facing down a slope in the direction water would run; gives the compass direction.

Clinometer: Height measuring device.

Conservation: Gifford Pinchot, a turn-of-the-century forester closely associated with President Teddy Roosevelt, applied the word to describe a natural resource philosophy. It meant "wise use." Through the years it has taken on an extended meaning that really says "wise use over a period of time." The time factor forces us to consider the consequences of current use compared to future use.

Coppice: A stand of trees originating from sprouts on stumps or roots of trees previously cut. Most hardwood species sprout readily when cut young. Few conifers will sprout from the stump.

Crown Class: Tree crowns are classified as to the position in which they are found. The following are the generally recognized classes:

Dominant: Trees with crowns that extend above the average tree crowns and receive light from directly above and some from the sides.

Co-Dominant: Trees with crowns that form the general crown level of a stand and receive full light from the top, but little from the sides.

Intermediate: Trees shorter than the two preceding classes but with some branches extending into the general crown and receives little direct light from above and from the sides.

Suppressed: Trees with crowns entirely below the general crown level and receive no direct light either from above or below.

Cull: Tree or log of merchantable size, but with no market value.

DBH: Diameter of a tree at breast height or 4¹/₂ feet above ground, on the uphill side of the tree.

Duff: Often referred to as litter, which is made up of materials on the upper layer of the forest floor. This includes freshly fallen leaves, twigs and slightly decomposed organic matter.

Erosion: The wearing away of the soil by agents such as wind, water, and gravity.

Exposure: That portion of the slope that is directly in the path of wind, rain, and sun. That part of a slope open to action of the elements.

Forest Land Capabilities: The productivity of the land as it is affected by particular location or position on a slope.

Forest Types: A classification of a site indicating the major tree species present or the major species represented in an area.

Germination: This process occurs when viable seed meet favorable conditions that will allow it to grow.

Girdle: To chop or remove a strip of bark, or a section of wood containing the food-carrying tissue of a tree, in an even strip around the perimeter of the tree or twig.

Harvest: The removal of marketable products from the forest.

Mature Tree: A tree that has reaches a size that the forest manager decides is a merchantable product.

Merchantable Height: A term used to indicate the marketable length of a tree.

Multiple Land Use: A term used to indicate the management of timber, wildlife, grazing, water and recreation in an integrated, consolidated program.

National Forests: These differ from National Parks in that recreation is not their only use. Recreation may be a primary use in one part of the National Forest. For example, there are more acres of Wilderness areas in National Forests than in National Parks. The National Forest system administers 154 forests and 19 grasslands. On most National Forest land timber, water, wildlife, recreation, and grazing are compatible resources. These are managed for productive and sustained yields according to the land's capability.

National Parks: The National Park Service was established by Congress to promote and regulate the use of national parks, monuments, and reservations and to conserve the scenery and the natural and historic objects and any wildlife therein. The Park Service administers 295 separate areas. The Park Service manages some areas for historical or recreational uses. Each of the 35 national parks was established to preserve a unique natural area for our enjoyment and study. National parks are often confused with National Forests.

Old Growth: This term describes forests with trees over 100 years of age.

Partial Cut: Method of cutting mature trees, such as shelterwood cut, selection cut, or seed tree cut.

Pole Timber: A young tree that is 3-12" in DBH.

Prescribe Burn: Control burning to enhance forest management techniques in Silviculture, wildlife management, fire hazard control, etc.

Preservation: In natural resources, other than wood preservation, this term is related to land use. The meaning stems from 19^th century land reserves wherein areas and resources were set aside for limited or restricted use and development. Preservation often restricts land to recreation or scientific study. Preservation may be contrasted to the principle of multiple use which rather intensively develops one or more of an area's resources.

Reproduction: A natural establishment of seedlings or sprouts 0-1" DBH.

Residual Stand: Trees left after any partial cut.

Sanitation Cutting: The removal of dead, damaged, or susceptible trees; essentially to prevent the spread of pests or pathogens and so promote forest hygiene.

Sapling: A young tree less than 3" DBH. The minimum size is usually placed at 1" DBH.

Seedling: A tree grown from seeds.

Silviculture: A term used to indicate the establishment, development, care, and reproduction of stands of timber.

Site: The combination of biotic, climatic, soil, and ecological factors and conditions of an area that produce forests or other vegetation.

Slope Position: A particular location on a slope, e.g. upper, middle, or lower slope, ridge top, or bottom land. A specific topographic location.

Sprout: A tree originating from a root or stump.

Stocking: A measure of the proportion of the area actually occupied by trees.

Sustained Yield: Management of a forest stand to provide a constant supply of timber and revenue.

T.S.I.: Timber Stand Improvement - Any practice designed to improve a stand of timber by removal of vines, culls, and undesirable species.

Wilderness: In the strictest sense, this means an area that has never been developed by man. A 1964 Wilderness Act defined it thus: "A Wilderness, in contrast with those areas where man and his own works dominated landscape, is hereby recognized as an area where the earth and its community of life are untrampled by man, where man himself is a visitor and does not remain." In common use, the word is associated with these undeveloped areas and those set aside with a little development. In some cases, man-made items are dismantled to reduce the area to a primitive state. Under these broader uses, some roadless areas are considered wilderness when access is limited to hiking, canoeing, or horseback riding and use is set aside for recreation. To most of the general public, wilderness experiences are gained in a number of settings involving wild but not necessarily true Wilderness areas.

Wild Fire: Fires burning out of control, regardless of how or why they were started.

Wolf Tree: A tree that occupies more than its fair share of growing space.

Tree and Forest Concepts

The following basic concepts cover the broad range of forestry. A correct understanding of each statement would benefit both resource managers and well-rounded citizens. Some are so logical or simple that they are taken for granted and overlooked. An appreciation of these points would benefit judging team members.

A. Characteristics, Distribution, and Status of Forest Resources

• Trees have distinctive characteristics by which they can be identified.
• Trees depend upon water, soil nutrients, sunlight, and air for growth.
• Climate, soil, and topography influence the natural range and distribution of the different types of forest communities.
• Forest communities influence their climate and their soil.
• Forest litter, humus and roots give forest soil an exceptional ability to absorb moisture and resist erosion.
• In the forest, some organisms are adapted to living in the forest soil, some on the forest floor, some in the undergrowth, and some in trees.
• Forests are constantly undergoing change, and as they mature and are harvested or die, some species of plants and animals may be replaced by others.
• The interrelationships between the plant and animal members of forest communities and their environments determine the characteristics of a particular forest.
  • Each of the plants and animals that make up a forest community have influence on it.
  • Forest communities influence the plants and animals of which they are composed.
• Fires, diseases, insects, man and animals may be harmful or beneficial to the forest.
• Some lands are better adapted for the growing of forests than for other uses.
• Forests have certain characteristics which make them attractive for recreational activities.
• An expanding population and new uses for forest products and services make necessary more intensive multiple-purpose management of forest resources.

B. Understanding the Uses of Forest Resources and Their Importance to Man

• The original forests of the Nation were the primary sources of building the nation.
• Forests yield many essential products for man's use.
• Many communities are highly dependent upon local forests, forest industries, and forest recreation for economic stability.
• New uses for the products of the forest are being discovered through research and development.
• Forests provide a wide variety of recreational opportunities.
• Forests are important in helping to protect watersheds from floods and droughts.

C. Understanding Problems and Techniques of Management

• Forests can be managed to produce a continuous supply of wood and wood products, wildlife, water, recreational opportunities and forage.
• Foresters use various practices in managing forest resources:
  • Insect and disease control
  • Fire control
  • Harvesting practices
  • Thinning and pruning operations
  • Reforestation
• Volume and growth data are essential in determining management practices necessary to produce the optimum amount of forest products.
• Research is essential for the development of new and improved forest management practices and the more efficient utilization of forest products and services.

D. Understanding Policy and Administrative Techniques

• Public use of forest land carries an obligation for good citizenship.
• Small woodland owners control a major portion of commercial forest lands which are a potential source of large quantities of forest products and services.
• The woodland owner can obtain technical advice and assistance in forest management from many public and private organizations and agencies.
• Current state and federal programs provide financial assistance as incentives for better management of forest resources.
• Many progressive public and private owners of forest lands are managing forests for multiple uses rather than solely for timber production.
• Forest owners have responsibilities as well as rights in the management and use of forests under democratic living.
• Cooperation between public agencies, private owners, and the general public is necessary in protecting forests against fires, diseases, insects, and excessive animal populations.
• Policy decisions must be made to settle differences of opinion which arise from competing uses of the forests.

Summary of Laws and Regulations Affecting Forests and Range Lands

Land and its productive capability form a base for renewable resource yields. Likewise, laws form a legal base for using and managing the nation's forest and range lands. Some of the more important Federal laws are described below:

Creative Act of 1891 (2 Stat. 1103; 16 U.S.C. 471) -- Authorized the President of the United States to set aside public lands as public reservations.

* Organic Administration Act of 1897 (30 Stat. 34 amended; 16 U.S.C. 473-478, 479-482, 551) -- Authorized the Secretary of Agriculture to manage the National Forests to improve and protect the forests, to secure favorable conditions of water flow, and to furnish a continuous supply of timber.

Antiquities Act of 1906 (34 Stat. 225; 16 U.S.C., 431 et seq.) -- Protects ruins or objects of antiquity on Federal Lands.

* Weeks Law of 1911 (36 Stat. 961, as amended; 16 U.S.C., 480, 500, 513-519, 521, 522) -- Authorized purchasing and adding to the National Forest System forested, cut-over, or denuded lands within the watersheds of navigable streams which are necessary to regulate the flow of navigable streams or to produce timber.

* Smith-Lever Act of 1914 (30 Stat. 372; 7 U.S.C. 341-349) -- Established a Federal-State cooperative extension program to provide education for the public in agricultural and natural resources.

* Clarke-McNary Act of 1924 (43 Stat. 653-654, as amended; 16 U.S.C. 564-567) -- Authorized technical and financial assistance to the States for forest fire control and for production and distribution of forest tree seedlings. (Sections 1 through 4 were repealed by the Cooperative Forestry Assistance Act of 1978.)

* McSweeney-McNary Act of 1928 (45 Stat. 699-702, as amended; 16 U.S.C. 531, 581A, 581B-581I) -- Authorized a comprehensive Forest Service research program. (This act repealed and supplanted by the Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resources Research Act of 1978.)

Taylor Grazing Act of 1934 (48 Stat. 1269; 43 U.S.C. 315 et seq.) -- Authorized the Secretary of the Interior to establish grazing districts from the unreserved public domain lands and to make rules and regulations for their occupancy and use.

* Soil Conservation Act of 1935 (49 Stat. 163-164; 16 U.S.C. 590 a-f) -- Provided for control and prevention of soil erosion, delegated all activities relating to soil erosion to the Secretary of Agriculture, and established the Soil Conservation Service.

Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act of 1936 (49 Stat. 1148, as amended; 16 U.S.C. 590 et seq.) -- Established the Agricultural Conservation Program, which provides cost-sharing funds to landowners for soil and water protection including tree planting and timber stand improvement practices.

Bankhead-Jones Farm Tenant Act of 1937 (50 Stat. 525, as amended; 7 U.S.C. 1010-1012) -- Authorized Federal acquisition of eroded and exhausted farm lands, which were ultimately designated National Grasslands.

Forest Pest Control Act of 1947 (61 Stat. 1977; 16 U.S.C. 1010-1012) -- Authorized Federal acquisition of eroded and exhausted farm lands, which were untimely designated National Grass-lands.

* Cooperative Forest Management Act of 1950 (64 Stat. 473, as amended; U.S.C. 586 c, 586 d) -- Authorized technical and financial assistance to States so they can provide technical assistance to private forest landowners and processors.

** Multiple Use-Sustained Yield Act of 1960 (74 Stat. 215; 16 U.S.C. 528-531) -- Established a policy of multiple use, sustained yield management for the renewable resources of the National Forest System.

** McIntyre-Stennis Act of 1962 (76 Stat. 806; 16 U.S.C. 582A - 582A-7) -- Established a cooperative research program in forestry for State land-grant colleges and universities.

* Clean Air Act of 1963 (77 Stat. 392; 42 U.S.C.1857) -- Gave the Federal government, for the first time, enforcement powers regarding air pollution.

* Wilderness Act of 1964 (78 Stat. 890; 16 U.S.C. 1131-1136) -- Established the National Wilderness Preservation System.

National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 (80 Stat. 915; 16 U.S.C. 4700 -- Provided for managing cultural resources on Federal lands and established procedures for determining relative significance among cultural resources.

* Wild and Scenic Rivers Act of 1968 (82 Stat. 906 as amended; 16 U.S.C. 1271-1281) -- Provided for designation of wild and scenic rivers and for comprehensive studies of other rivers designated as potential additions to the National Wild and Scenic Rivers System.

* National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (83 Stat. 852 as amended; 42 U.S.C. 4321, 4331-4335, 4341, 4347) -- Required that environmental considerations be incorporated into all Federal policies and activities, and required all Federal agencies to prepare environmental impact statements for any actions significantly affecting the environment.

Clear Air Act Amendments of 1970 (84 Stat. 1676; 42 U.S.C. 1857b) -- Sharply expanded the Federal role in setting and enforcing ambient air quality standards, including regulating land management practices to achieve and maintain such standards.

Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972 (86 Stat. 816; 33 U.S.C. 1151 et seq.) -- Established as a national objective the restoration and maintenance of the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the Nation's water, and required area-wide planning to prevent future water pollution that could be associated with growth, development, and land use, including timber management.

Agriculture and Consumer Protection Act of 1973 (87 Stat. 242, 245 as amended; 16 U.S.C. 1503-1510) -- Sections 1009 and 1010 authorized a forestry incentives program for nonindustrial private landowners for tree planting and timber stand improvement for the purpose of producing marketable timber crops and other values. (These sections were repealed and supplanted by the Cooperative Forestry Assistance Act of 1978.)

* Endangered Species Act of 1973 (87 Stat. 884; 16 U.S.C. 1531-1534) -- Provided for the protection and conservation of threatened and endangered fish, wildlife, and plant species. Directs all Federal agencies to utilize their authorities and programs to further the purpose of the Act.

Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resources Planning Act of 1974 (88 Stat. 476 as amended; 17 U.S.C. 1600-1614) -- Provided for continuing assessment and long-range planning of the Nation's forest and range renewable resources under the jurisdiction of the Secretary of Agriculture.

Archaeological and Historic Preservation Act of 1974 (88 Stat. 174; 16 U.S.C. 469-469c) -- Provided for recovery, protection, and preservation of significant cultural resources that will be irreparable lost or destroyed by alteration of terrain from any Federal construction project or Federally licensed activity or program.

* National Forest Management Act of 1976 (90 Stat. 2949; 16 U.S.C. 472a, 476, 476 (note), 500, 513-516, 521b, 528 (note), 576b, 595-2 (note), 1600 (note), 1600-1602, 1604, 1606, 1608-1614) -- Established additional standards and guidelines for managing the National Forests, including directives for National Forest land management planning, and public participation.

Federal Land Policy and Management Act of 1976 (90 Stat. 2743; 43 U.S.C. 1701 et seq.) -- Sets policies primarily for the administration of Bureau of Land Management (BLM) lands. Includes common statutory authorities for the Secretaries of the Interior and Agriculture in range management, issuance of rights-of-ways, and other aspects of managing lands administered by the BLM and the Forest Service.

Clean Air Act Amendments of 1977 (91 Stat. 685; 42 U.S.C. 7401 et seq.) -- Established as a national goal preventing any future impairment, of visibility of Class I areas from man-made air pollution. Class I Federal areas include all International Parks, all National Wilderness areas that exceed 5,000 acres, all National Memorial Parks that exceed 5,000 acres, and all National parks that exceed 6, 000 acres.

Soil and Water Resources Conservation Act of 1977 (91 Stat. 1407; 16 U.S.C. 2001-2009) -- Provided for assessment and long-range planning of Federal programs to conserve soil, water, and related resources under jurisdiction of the Soil Conservation Service.

* Cooperative Forestry Assistance Act of 1978 (92 Stat. 365; 16 U.S.C. 2101-2111) -- Brought together authority from nine cooperative assistance programs in forestry and expanded some of them; also authorized consolidated programs to participating States.

Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resources Research Act of 1978 (92 Stat. 353; 16 U.S.C. 1600-1601, 1641-1647. 581-581c) -- Authorized expanding forest and rangeland renewable resources research.

Public Rangelands Improvement Act of 1978 (citation) -- Amended the Federal Land Policy and Management Act of 1976 and the Wild Horses and Burros Protection Act of 1971 to provide the Bureau of Land Management and the Forest Service with additional direction and authorities in managing public rangelands. Established a statutory grazing fee formula in 16 western States, excluding the National Grasslands, for the period 1979 through 1985.

Many of the foregoing laws required regulations for their implementation. In some cases - for example, the National Forest Management Act - regulations are still being developed. Regulations guiding Forest Service programs are found in Title 36, Code of Federal Regulations, Chapter 2.

* or ** Signifies laws of clear significance to forest resources.

References

A Guide to Common Forest Pests in Georgia. T. Price, Georgia Forestry Commission, 1988. Macon, GA 44pp.

A Guide to Common Insects and Diseases of Forest Trees in the Northeastern United States. Forest Insect and Disease Management NA-FR-4 (1979), USDA Forest Service. Super-intendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402. Price - Unknown.

Checklist of United States Trees. USDA Ag. Handbook 541. 1979. Little, Elbert L., Chairman. Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402.

Forestry Handbook. SAF, 1989. Jules Kazimir, Dept. 8-0318, Wiley-Interscience, A Division of John Wiley & Sons, Inc,. 605 Third Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10158. Price - $54.95.

Forests and Forestry. Anderson and Holland. 4^th Edition. 1990. Interstate Publishers, Inc., Danville, IL.

Important Trees of Eastern Forests. Same information is available in the Golden Book series in bookstore.

Important Trees of the United States. USDA Ag. Handbook 519. 1978. Little, Elbert L., 70pp. Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402

Insects and Diseases of Trees in the South. USDA Forest Service - Southern Region GR.R8GRS (1985). Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402. Price - Unknown.

Insects of Eastern Forests. USDA-Forest Service. 1985. Misc. Publication 1426. Washington, D.C. 608pp.

Know Your Trees. Identification Book of the American Forestry Association, 374pp. 1319 18^th St., NW, Washington, D.C. 20036.

National 4-H Forestry Invitational Handbook. Extension Service-USDA, 57pp.

National 4-H Forestry Units A, B, and C (Guides and Manuals). National 4-H Council, National 4-H Supply Service, 7100 Connecticut Avenue, Chevy Chase, Maryland 20815.

Oak Pests: A Guide to Major Insects, Diseases, Air Pollution and Chemical Injury. General Report SA GR, March (1980), State and Private Forestry, Southeastern Area (and) Southern Forest Experiment Station, USDA Forest Service. Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402. Price - Unknown.

Terminology of Forest Service - Technology and Products. SAF. The Society of American Foresters, 5400 Grosvenor Lane, Bethesda, Maryland 20814. Price - Unknown.

4-H: JM-04 Reprinted June, 2000

The University of Georgia and Ft. Valley State University, the U.S. Department of Agriculture and counties of the state cooperating. The Cooperative Extension Service, the University of Georgia College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences offers educational programs, assistance and materials to all people without regard to race, color, national origin, age, sex or disability.

An Equal Opportunity Employer/Affirmative Action Organization Committed to a Diverse Work Force

Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, The University of Georgia College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences and the U.S. Department of Agriculture cooperating.

Gale A. Buchanan, Dean and Director