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Dan T. Brown and Calvin F. Alford, Extension Animal Scientists
GETTING STARTED
Establishing Pastures
Corrals and Cattle Working Facilities
Miscellaneous Equipment and Preparation
Fences
Selecting a Breed
Heifers or Mature Cows?
Commercial or Purebred?
HERD NUTRITION
Ruminant Digestion
Essential Nutrients
Classification of Feeds
Protein Supplements
Energy Concentrates
Dry Roughages
Silage
Balancing a Ration
Summer Nutrition
Creep Feeding Calves
Winter Nutrition
PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT
Developing Replacement Heifers
Separating Groups for Better Management
Controlled Breeding
Improving Percent Calf Crop
Identification
Managing the Nursing Calves
HERD IMPROVEMENT
Replacement Heifers
Bull Selection and Use
Performance Program
Crossbreeding
Artificial Insemination
HERD HEALTH AND PARASITE CONTROL
MARKETING
Feeder Calf Grades
Marketing Programs
Beef cattle are important to agricultural income in Georgia. The most recent inventory showed that 700,000 plus beef brood cows had calved in the state. Income from beef cattle in Georgia has ranked among the top five enterprises during most of the past 10 years.
The beef industry within the state is primarily a cow-calf program. Most of the calves are sold at weaning and shipped to other areas of the nation for finishing. Stockering (backgrounding) is a substantial and expanding industry in Georgia as well. This program involves growing the calves on forages after weaning and selling them as heavy feeders to other parts of the country for final finishing.
Georgia finishes very little beef and imports over 75 percent of its fed beef. Cattle finishing in the state has been declining for many years.
Beef cattle are in every county in the state and they make a significant contribution to the agricultural income, but the beef industry has not reached its potential. Beef herds are generally small, with the average size herds being less than 50 head. Very few producers raise cattle as their only farming enterprise, and beef cattle are considered a sideline by a high percentage of the producers.
Beef cattle fit naturally into the organization of most farms in the state. They complement a diversified farming operation by making use of marginal land and crop residue. Cattle can produce extra income by harvesting forages which are grown in a double cropping program on a high percentage of the farms.
Through superior management and planning, the income from beef cattle can be substantially increased. Major expansion in brood cow numbers, stockering, and finishing of cattle is possible if producers want to and are willing to follow proper procedures. Increasing production costs of the past few years also make it imperative that the management level be improved. This publication describes the major points in a well-managed cattle operation.
People
often get in the cattle business by chance. Such haphazard starts are seldom
satisfying or profitable. The best chance for success in a cattle operation
depends on good preparation.
Adequate discussion of all the factors to be considered before starting a cattle operation is difficult. Prospective cattle producers should give attention to establishing pastures, developing adequate facilities and equipment, building fences, and selecting a breed before they actually buy cattle. Persons already in the cattle business should examine their operations to see if they have adequately provided these essentials.
Basic to the cattle business is the development of the pastures. Most cattle operations in Georgia depend on improved pastures. These improvements require varying amounts of time, depending upon the condition of the land to be used for pastures. When you use perennial grasses (bermudas, bahia, fescue), it is generally recommended to have between 1-1/2 to 2-1/2 acres per cow-calf unit. This requirement will vary considerably because of variations in rainfall, soil, fertilizer used, type of grass, and supplemental feed.
Factors to consider when planning a forage system include: land area available; location in the state; productivity of the soils; kinds of livestock that will utilize the forage; and, how intensively the operation will be managed. These factors influence the forage crops that should be grown, fertilization rates, the quality and distribution of the feed produced and the carrying capacity of the operation.
Any land that produces good yields of other crops is also suitable for pasture production.
Adapted plants should be put on the right soils. Drought-resistant plants, such as Coastal Bermuda or Tifton 44, should be used on upland soils.
On lowland areas in the Upper Coastal Plains and the Piedmont, dallisgrass and the white clovers are excellent producers. In north Georgia, tall fescue-white clover mixtures can be used on lowland areas, and bahiagrass and the white clovers can be used on lowland soils in south Georgia. Coast-cross-1 is adapted to most soils in the southern part of the Coastal Plain region, but is subject to winter kill.
Intermediate locations between the extreme uplands and the lowlands may be used for winter grazing mixtures and summer hay plants, as well as general pasture mixtures.
In the mountains, tall fescue, orchardgrass-white clover mixtures can be used on uplands and lowlands.
In north Georgia, fescue is the predominant cool season perennial. Most Kentucky 31 tall fescue contains a fungus that has a detrimental effect on cattle performance. This effect or influence may be partially overcome by adding other species of forage to your pasture mixture or by using fungus-free varieties. Fungus-free varieties are not without problems, however. Fescue fungus-free stands are harder to establish and maintain and are not as drought-resistant as fungus-infected stands. Consult your local county Extension agent for additional information.
Georgia soils respond well to good management and most are adapted to pasture production. The state is divided into seven soil regions:
Fertile upland soils and areas along the streams make excellent pastures. Good pastures can be produced on almost any of the land used for crops. Periods of dry weather can occur in spring, summer, and fall. Use drought-resistant plants for upland summer grazing.
The rich covelands are well-adapted to cool-season perennial and adapted warm-season perennial pastures. Winter annual pasture can be planted on any of the cultivated soils of this region. The better upland soils will be easier to handle, however, because of better drainage. The advantage of this region is the abundant rainfall.
The best land for pasture in this region is along streams. The low, moist areas, if adequately drained, are excellent for summer pastures. The better upland soil is good for winter grazing crops. Periods of dry weather often occur in spring, summer, and fall. Use drought-resistant plants on the uplands for summer grazing.
Land that produces row crops will produce pasture in this region. Some of the better areas will produce winter and summer supplemental pastures. Put sand ridges in hybrid bermuda for hay and grazing.
The best pasture soil is in moist areas along the streams, but good results are being obtained in the better uplands. Winter annual pastures do best on the upland soils. Soils in this region are usually heavier and more fertile than those of the middle and lower Coastal Plain. Periods of dry weather occur in spring, summer, and fall. Use drought-resistant plants for summer grazing.
The best pasture soils are on good upland and on the well-drained lowlands. Most of the uplands can produce winter pasture as well as summer pasture. Periods of dry weather occur in spring, summer, and fall. Drought-resistant plants should be used for summer grazing.
Poorly drained areas in this region should not be used for pasture. Good pasture can be produced on the better soils. Any soil that will grow corn will produce pasture in the lower Coastal Plain.
In the Coastal Plain, gallberry bushes indicate good pasture land. Pitcher plants indicate poorly drained areas. Because deep sand with scrub oak is poorly adapted to most pasture plants, it should be planted only to drought-resistant plants such as Coastal Bermuda.
Any successful beef operation involves handling cattle at various times: separating cows from calves at weaning, during worming or other treatments, when branding, when weighing at sale time, in performance testing, during pregnancy examination, and when loading for movement or sale. Therefore, it is important to have proper facilities and equipment ready before you buy the cattle.
Ideally, the corral should be located on well-drained sandy soil in an area with some shade trees. Put it in a place convenient to the pasture area you will be using. It should have a source of water, electricity and hay and feed trough space so the corral can be used as a holding pen when necessary.
A working chute and a squeeze are necessary parts of a corral. Construct a loading chute that will accommodate the kind of truck or trailer you use. A set of scales is important although it may not be essential to the starting of an operation.
A minimum of two holding pens will be needed in any corral -- one for holding the cattle before they are worked and the other for the cattle after they have been worked. The pens should be large enough to hold all the cattle from one pasture. If cattle are to be held overnight, allow 40 to 60 square feet per head.
Plan the corral so the gates are in the corners of the pen and build them so they will not sag. Unless gates are to be used for cutting cattle, they should close in the direction the cattle are moving. Fences within the corral should be five feet high, but outside fences and fences where cattle will be crowded should be at least six feet high. Although the shape of the pens is not important, avoid narrow corners. Plan pens so you can add to them later.
A good corral layout has a funnel-shaped or circular crowding area, and uses a free-swinging gate so the cattle can be crowded into the working chute. Holding pens should be designed for easy movement of cattle into the crowding area. The holding area should have from 18 to 20 square feet of space per animal, and the crowding pen should be large enough to hold one truckload of cattle, if possible. Do not make the working chute too wide because cattle will tend to turn around. It may be necessary to have one chute for calves and another for mature animals. A chute with sloping sides is an alternative. It should be wider at the top (24-26 inches) than at the bottom (about 16 inches). Make the chutes long enough to hold four or five animals at one time.
Bars overhead in the working chute should be available to help prevent animals from rearing up and falling over backwards. It is also a good idea to include blocking gates or bars that can be inserted to separate animals or to keep them from backing up.
You can build the squeeze chute from plans or buy a commercially-built squeeze chute. If a large number of animals are to be worked, it would probably be wise to consider a commercial squeeze chute.
Include a good loading chute as part of the cattle working facilities. Design it so cattle can be loaded without going through the squeeze chute. Keep the rise to no more than 3-1/2 inches per linear foot. The floor should be either a stairstep or rough enough so cattle will not slip. A chute that has an adjustable height is desirable for loading into trucks of different heights. Construction plans and specifications are available from the county Extension agent.
Certain miscellaneous equipment will be necessary before or soon after starting a cattle operation: dehorning equipment if horned breeds are grown; identification tools such as branding irons, heater, tattoo outfit, and eartags; some items of veterinary equipment such as veterinary syringes, thermometers, drench guns, and balling guns.
An adequate, dependable, clean water supply must be ready before you receive your cattle. A well is the most desirable water source. Water pumped from a pond or stream is satisfactory if it's clean. In order to make plans for a water supply, producers should realize that mature cattle will consume 10 to 15 gallons daily. Although cattle may and many times do drink directly from ponds or streams, this water is more likely to be contaminated and cause diseases.
Try to complete storage facilities before you start a cattle program. The kind and size of storage will depend on the feeding system chosen. Appropriate feed bunks, troughs, hay racks, and feed delivery system must accompany the feeding system. (The section on "Herd Nutrition" has more information on feed needs and feeding systems.)
Pastures need to be properly fenced to prevent many problems in a cattle operation. A permanent, well-constructed perimeter fence is recommended, but some of the newer electric fences are much cheaper and have been used successfully as permanent fences for the boundaries of cattle operations as well as for cross-fences. Cross-fences and various size fields are important to a satisfactory cattle program. This is because certain groups within a herd need to be managed separately. For example, replacement heifers and heifers with their first calves may need to be separated from mature cows.
You also need a well-fenced paddock for keeping the herd bull or bulls. Well-designed bull pens should provide shade and/or shelter (trees will be suitable), adequate source of fresh, clean water and two to three acres per bull of grazing area. Ideally, bull pens should not have fence line contact with beef females. This is to prevent fence damage or the bull getting with the cows when they are not supposed to be. An electric wire on the inside and at the top of the bull pen fence is desired for best containment.
The
relative cost of various types of fencing is a major consideration. Expensive
fences add to the fixed costs (depreciation) and make it difficult to make a
profit, but they must contain the cattle and last a long time. The types of
fences for cattle operations listed in order of most expensive (in terms of
initial cost) to least expensive are:
People often want to know if there is a "best" breed of beef cattle. Even though there are strong views concerning the merits of certain breeds, no single breed excels in all traits. With a few excep-tions, the most common breeds found in Georgia are listed in the following groups:
The British breeds generally excel in fertility, good disposition, and easy fleshing or finishing at medium weights. Continental breeds are generally larger, have fast growth rates, and have leaner carcasses unless fed to heavy weights. The American breeds, which are primarily of Brahman origin, are noted for their heat tolerance and longevity.
Since no single breed has been proved superior in terms of feed efficiency or overall efficiency, a crossbreeding program is best for most commercial cattlemen. Such a system allows producers to combine the desirable characteristics of several breeds and to receive the added benefit of hybrid vigor. (See the section on crossbreeding for more information on this practice.)
When you have to buy females, advantages and disadvantages exist whether you start with mature cows or with heifers.
If you buy pregnant mature cows or cow-calf pairs, you realize a return sooner. In addition, calving difficulties occur less frequently with mature cows. The major disadvantage is finding quality mature cows for sale. Producers want to keep their best producing cows. Mature cows also have a shorter productive life than heifers.
When you buy heifers, you usually can select from among top quality animals. Heifers also have a longer productive life expectancy than mature cows. A problem with heifers is the high percent that may have to be culled because of failure to breed or poor productive performance. You can also expect greater calving difficulty.
Whether heifers or mature cows are bought, try to buy females with the best quality and performance characteristics available. Always try to buy cows or heifers that will fit the existing or planned calving systems. Changing cows to a different calving season is difficult and costly. If you buy mature cows, be sure they are healthy and not too old. Healthy cows are physically healthy, with good eyes, udders, and teeth. They should also be free from Brucellosis, Tuberculosis, and other diseases. Always require a veterinarian's health certificate on purchased cows.
Unless rapid expansion is desired, people already in the cattle business should probably expand by keeping a higher than normal number of replacement heifers. You usually need to keep at least 50 percent of the heifer calves. This system permits replacement of culled cows and allows for genetic improvement.
No one can tell you whether to raise purebred or commercial cattle. Personal preference, financial resources, and other factors are going to influence this decision.
It generally takes more money and more intensive management to operate a purebred cattle program than it does a commercial one. In addition to all the management, nutrition, and marketing required for commercial operations, the purebred producer must consider other factors: more time spent for promotion and marketing, original breeding stock is generally more expensive, and small purebred breeders are generally at a disadvantage in comparison to large operators.
The genetic potential for reproduction or weight gains cannot be achieved unless the nutritional needs of a herd are met on a year-round basis.
Cattle are ruminants. Their stomachs have four compartments that allow them to digest great amounts of roughage. Microorganisms in the stomach break down and digest this roughage. The digestion system of a cow needs a balance of essential nutrients to work properly. These include protein, energy, vitamins, and water. Cattle can also utilize non-proteins such as urea within certain limits. The microorganisms in the rumen can convert this urea into usable amino acids. Total protein is, therefore, usually more important than source of protein in cattle feeding.
Nutrients essential for animal maintenance, growth, reproduction, milk production, or fattening fall into various classes: energy, protein, minerals, vitamins, and water.
Energy, commonly expressed as TDN (Total Digestible Nutrients), is the major nutrient requirement for beef cattle. Unless the energy needs are met, cattle will not grow or mature properly. Severe energy deficiencies cause stunted calves and brood cows with a low percent calf crop. Cows are also more susceptible to diseases if their energy needs are not met.
All beef cattle require protein in their diets. Young growing animals and lactating cows and pregnant cows require a higher concentration of protein than most other classes of beef cattle. If cattle do not receive their protein requirements, they will not grow or reproduce properly.
Thirteen minerals are generally recognized as essential in beef nutrition. The normal diet of beef cattle in Georgia supplies most of them. Supplemental minerals needed for brood cow herds in Georgia are salt (sodium and chlorine), calcium, and phosphorus. To avoid possible deficiencies, keep a mix of these major minerals before brood cow herds at all times. A general rule is seven percent phosphorus in the mix, and maintain a 2:1 or 1:1 ratio of calcium to phosphorus. Some suggested mineral mixes are as follows:
Add 30 pounds of cottonseed meal or ground corn to 300 pounds of the mineral mix to prevent caking. Commercial mineral mixes that meet the above requirements are satisfactory, but compare them on a cost basis to a home mix. Small producers may find it more convenient to use a commercial mix if ingredients for a home mix are difficult to find. Trace mineralized salt is usually easy to find and can be used as part or all of the salt in a mineral mix.
Cows may need supplemental magnesium under certain conditions. Lactating brood cows grazing cool season pastures (winter annuals and fescue) are susceptible to a condition known as "grass tetany" characterized by a deficiency in blood magnesium. Feeding a high magnesium mineral supplement, starting 30 days prior to turning cows on winter grazing, has helped prevent this condition. A commercial "high mag" mineral mix is satisfactory. A home mix has also been effective:
30% trace mineralized salt
30% dicalcium phosphate or bone meal
30% magnesium oxide
10% cottonseed meal
When cattle are healthy and are on an adequate feeding program (including green pastures), they do not normally need vitamin supplements. One exception is the need for extra vitamin A under certain conditions. Vitamin A exists as carotene in green plants and is converted to vitamin A in the animal's body. Under certain stress conditions or under periods of extended drought when little green grazing is available, a vitamin A deficiency could exist. The effects of a severe vitamin A deficiency could be quite serious. Young animals would not perform properly. Severe deficiencies might cause eye troubles, lack of muscle coordination, lameness, and joint problems, or lead to decreased reproduction efficiency in breeding animals. If a veterinarian or specialist diagnoses a vitamin A deficiency in a herd of cattle, correct it by feeding a high vitamin A supplement, or use an intramuscular injection of about a one million international unit dose. Such an injection usually lasts two to four months.
Even though water is probably the most important of all nutrients for beef cattle, it is probably the most taken for granted. Cattle need fresh water. Water quality is normally not a major problem in Georgia, but it must be free of contamination. If contamination is suspected, have the water analyzed for purity, contaminants, and mineral content.
Water supply may be from ponds, streams, or wells. If cattle drink from a flowing stream, be sure the stream is not polluted above or that your cattle do not pollute the stream for producers who may take water downstream. If a pond or lake is the water supply source, pipe water from the pond to a tank and control this with a float valve.
Daily water requirements for beef cattle vary with the weather and the age and size of the animal. Mature brood cows need from 10 to 15 gallons daily during the summer.
| Table 1. Daily Nutrient Requirements of Beef Cattle | ||||||
| Body Weight (lb) | Avg Daily Gain | Dry Matter (lb) | Total Protein (lb) | TDN (lb) | Ca (lb) | P (lb) |
| Growing Heifer Calves and Yearlings | ||||||
| 400 | 1.0 | 9.9 | 1.01 | 6.1 | .036 | .020 |
| 400 | 1.5 | 10.2 | 1.17 | 7.0 | .046 | .024 |
| 600 | 1.0 | 13.5 | 1.19 | 8.4 | .038 | .027 |
| 800 | 1.0 | 16.7 | 1.36 | 10.4 | .037 | .030 |
| Pregnant Yearling Heifers (Last third of pregnancy) | ||||||
| 700 | .9 | 15.3 | 1.30 | 8.5 | .041 | .030 |
| 800 | .9 | 16.8 | 1.40 | 9.2 | .047 | .033 |
| 900 | .9 | 18.3 | 1.50 | 9.9 | .048 | .037 |
| Dry Pregnant Mature Cows (Last third of pregnancy) | ||||||
| 900 | .9 | 18.2 | 1.5 | 9.8 | .049 | .038 |
| 1000 | .9 | 19.6 | 1.6 | 10.5 | .051 | .039 |
| 1200 | .9 | 22.3 | 1.7 | 11.8 | .058 | .047 |
| Cows Nursing Calves - Avg Milking Ability (First 3-4 months after calving) | ||||||
| 1000 | -- | 20.2 | 2.0 | 11.5 | .057 | .044 |
| 1100 | -- | 21.6 | 2.0 | 12.1 | .058 | .048 |
| 1200 | -- | 23.0 | 2.1 | 12.8 | .062 | .051 |
| Cows Nursing Calves - Superior Milking Ability (First 3-4 months after calving) | ||||||
| 1000 | -- | 20.6 | 2.5 | 13.8 | .080 | .056 |
| 1100 | -- | 22.3 | 2.6 | 14.5 | .085 | .060 |
| 1200 | -- | 23.8 | 2.7 | 15.2 | .086 | .062 |
| Bulls' Growth and Maintenance - Moderate Activity | ||||||
| 700 | 2.5 | 17.4 | 1.9 | 11.6 | .077 | .042 |
| 1300 | 1.0 | 25.4 | 1.9 | 14.2 | .056 | .048 |
| 1700 | -- | 27.7 | 1.9 | 13.4 | .058 | .058 |
| From Nutrient Requirements of Beef Cattle, Sixth Edition, Revised. National Research Council. 1984. | ||||||
| Table 2. Composition of Feeds (as fed basis) | |||||
| Feedstuffs | Dry Matter DM | Total Protein | TDN | Calcium | Phosphorus |
| Dry Roughages * | % | % | % | % | % |
| 1. Alfalfa hay, mid-bloom | 90 | 15.3 | 52 | 1.27 | 0.22 |
| 2. Alfalfa hay, early bloom | 90 | 16.2 | 54 | 1.27 | 0.22 |
| 3. Bermudagrass hay | 89 | 9.3 | 49 | 0.42 | 0.18 |
| 4. Bahiagrass hay | 91 | 7.5 | 47 | 0.46 | 0.20 |
| 5. Corncobs | 90 | 2.9 | 45 | 0.10 | 0.06 |
| 6. Cornstover | 85 | 5.6 | 43 | 0.48 | 0.08 |
| 7. Cottonseed hulls | 91 | 3.7 | 38 | 0.14 | 0.08 |
| 8. Fescue hay, early bloom | 92 | 8.7 | 44 | 0.28 | 0.24 |
| 9. Grass-clover hay 65-35% | 90 | 10.6 | 50 | 0.78 | 0.27 |
| 10. Lespedeza hay, late bloom | 93 | 13.5 | 47 | 1.11 | 0.24 |
| 11. Oat hay, mature | 91 | 8.5 | 50 | 0.22 | 0.20 |
| 12. Orchardgrass hay, late bloom | 91 | 7.6 | 49 | 0.24 | 0.27 |
| 13. Peanut hay | 91 | 9.8 | 50 | 1.12 | 0.14 |
| 14. Peanut hulls | 91 | 7.1 | 20 | 0.24 | 0.06 |
| 15. Red Clover hay | 89 | 14.0 | 49 | 1.36 | 0.22 |
| 16. Straw, wheat | 89 | 3.2 | 36 | 0.16 | 0.04 |
| 17. Sorghum hay | 91 | 7.2 | 51 | 0.50 | 0.28 |
| Silages * | |||||
| 18. Alfalfa, not wilted | 30 | 5.4 | 17 | 0.49 | 0.12 |
| 19. Alfalfa, wilted, mid-bloom | 38 | 5.9 | 22 | 0.51 | 0.12 |
| 20. Corn, dent mature, well-eared | 33 | 2.7 | 23 | 0.08 | 0.07 |
| 21. Grass-legume | 40 | 6.9 | 22 | 0.45 | 0.10 |
| 22. Sorghum, grain variety | 30 | 2.3 | 18 | 0.11 | 0.06 |
| 23. Sorghum-sudangrass | 28 | 3.0 | 15 | 0.13 | 0.06 |
| Concentrates | |||||
| 24. Barley | 88 | 11.9 | 74 | .04 | 0.33 |
| 25. Cane molasses | 75 | 4.4 | 54 | 0.83 | 0.11 |
| 26. Citrus pulp | 91 | 6.1 | 75 | 1.67 | 0.11 |
| 27. Corn dent No. 2 | 88 | 8.8 | 79 | .02 | 0.31 |
| 28. Corn distillers solubles | 93 | 26.0 | 82 | .33 | 1.27 |
| 29. Cow's milk | 12 | 3.1 | 16 | .11 | 0.08 |
| 30. Cottonseed meal | 91 | 41.0 | 69 | .16 | 1.10 |
| 31. Cottonseed, whole | 92 | 21.9 | 88 | .15 | 0.32 |
| 32. Dehydrated alfalfa | 92 | 17.4 | 56 | 1.39 | 0.23 |
| 33. Ground ear corn | 87 | 7.8 | 74 | .06 | 0.23 |
| 34. Milo | 87 | 8.8 | 73 | .04 | 0.32 |
| 35. Oats | 89 | 11.8 | 69 | .06 | 0.33 |
| 36. Soybean meal | 90 | 42.9 | 77 | .26 | 0.61 |
| 37. Wheat | 89 | 14.2 | 78 | .37 | 0.36 |
| Mineral Sources | |||||
| 38. Dicalcium phosphate | 97 | -- | -- | 21.34 | 18.72 |
| 39. Defluorinated rock phosphate | 100 | -- | -- | 32.0 | 18.0 |
| 40. Ground limestone | 100 | -- | -- | 34.0 | .02 |
| 41. Sodium tripolyphosphate | 96 | -- | -- | -- | 24.0 |
| 42. Steamed bone meal | 97 | 8.1 | .15 | 30.58 | 13.79 |
| * Nutrient content of harvested roughages such as hay, crop residue, or silage can vary greatly. Forage analysis should always be obtained. Refer to Extension leaflet #302 (DH-1-2) for instructions on submitting forage samples. | |||||
Feeds for beef cattle are generally classified as roughages or concentrates. These categories are determined by the relative fiber and energy contents of the feed. Roughages are subdivided as dry feeds and wet feeds. Both roughages and concentrates break down again into carbonaceous feeds and nitrogenous feeds.
Concentrates and roughages are sometimes also classified into energy or protein feeds.
 |
|
Classification
of Feeds |
The most common protein supplements for beef cattle in Georgia are cottonseed meal and soybean meal. Peanut meal may be available at times. These oil meal supplements are usually interchangeable on a percent protein basis. Buy them based on their cost per pound of protein.
Urea is not a true protein, but is used sometimes as a protein supplement because cattle can convert the non-protein nitrogen to usable protein through microorganism action in the rumen. Urea has a protein equivalency of 6.25 times the nitrogen content. For example, 45 percent nitrogen urea has a protein replacement value of 281 percent if it is properly supplemented. Use urea as a protein supplement only if it costs less than an organic type supplement. It usually takes six pounds of shelled corn and one pound of urea to replace seven pounds of a supplement such as soybean or cottonseed meal. Provide no more than a third of the daily protein requirements from urea. Urea must be thoroughly mixed in a feed to prevent toxicity. Since an adequate supply of carbohydrates must be available when feeding urea, it is more valuable in a finishing program than with brood cow feeding. Georgia cattle producers use urea mixtures quite frequently.
Protein supplements are available as pellets or as blocks. Some blocks have intake limiters. Some producers use salt plus cottonseed or soybean meal mix (hot-mix). The salt is used as an intake limiter (See section on winter feeding for more information on hot mixes).
The major energy concentrate feeds used in Georgia are corn, grain sorghum (milo), oats, wheat, and some rye and barley. Most of these grains are fed as supplemental feeds for brood cow operations. Rye should not be fed to cattle by itself since it is not very palatable. However, it may be fed in a mix when it makes up 20 to 30 percent of a concentrate mixture. Wheat is more suitable when it makes up no more than 40 percent of a ration. Oats are valuable in creep feeding calves, or when fed as the only grain to supplement the energy requirements for brood cows.
The most common dry roughage in Georgia is bermudagrass hay. Other hays used are fescue in central and northern Georgia and bahiagrass in central and southern Georgia. Millet, sudan grass, and forage or grain sorghums can be used for dry roughage when they are properly cured and stored.
Roughages from crop residues are becoming more important to the state's cattle industry. Cornstover, peanut hay, and soybean straw can provide a valuable roughage source where available. In all cases, proper harvesting and storage practices must be used.
Poultry litter is a major by-product feed ingredient for cow-calf operations within the state. It is a source of roughage and protein for brood cow feeding. Poultry litter needs to be properly stored in either deep stacks or in a silo to preserve its quality. (See section on winter feeding for more detail.)
Corn and sorghum silages are important feed sources for brood cows within the state. Silages can be stored for a long period of time and are relatively high in energy. They are generally low in protein and must be supplemented with protein or combined with high protein pastures to meet brood cow requirements.
Base your feeding program for a brood cow operation in Georgia primarily on pastures. You can develop a nearly year-round grazing program through proper planning. When cattle are on high quality pastures with adequate available forage, balancing rations is of little concern to beef producers. The art of husbandry allows the good manager to determine if the cattle are getting the needed nutrients by observing their condition.
At certain times, however, and with certain groups of cattle, you need to feed a ration prepared from harvested or purchased feeds. Winter feeding and developing replacement heifers are examples of when prepared rations may be needed. Protein supplements and minerals are the ingredients most likely to be purchased.
A balanced ration furnishes the nutrients needed, in the proper amounts and proportions, to allow animals to fulfill a specific purpose: maintenance, growth, gestation, or lactation. The needs may vary considerably. For example, a ration for a dry cow is not sufficient for a cow nursing a calf.
The combination of feeds in a ration will depend on:
The major ingredients for which we balance a ration are protein, TDN, calcium, and phosphorus. Although some rations are balanced for vitamin A, we will assume the needs are met unless extremely poor ingredients are used. If a vitamin A deficiency is suspected, supply it in a supplement or with an injection.
Balancing a ration is a trial and error method. Experience helps reduce the errors. Use the following steps:
| Example 1. 1000 lb Dry Pregnant Mature Cow (last 3rd of pregnancy) | |||||
| Feed source | Dry matter lb | Total protein lb | TDN lb | Ca lb | P- lb |
| Furnished by 22 lb bermudagrass hay (Table 2,#3) | 19.6 | 2.0 | 1.8 | .092 | .040 |
| Total | 19.6 | 2.0 | 10.8 | .092 | .040 |
| Requirements | 19.6 | 1.6 | 10.5 | .051 | .039 |
| Deficiencies | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |
In example 1, we found the requirements for a 1000 pound dry pregnant brood cow in Table 1
and recorded them on the requirements line of the example. We assumed the producer had
bermudagrass hay, so we started by using 22 pounds of hay and multiplied it by the nutrient
contents found in Table 2. The procedure to get the amount for each column is as follows:
| Amount | Nutrient |
Analysis from Table 2 |
Pounds | ||
| 22 lb | X | Dry matter | 89.0% | = | 19.6 |
| 22 lb | X | Protein | 9.3% | = | 2.0 |
| 22 lb | X | TDN | 49.0% | = | 10.8 |
| 22 lb | X | Ca | .42% | = | .092 |
| 22 lb | X | P | .18% | = | .040 |
When we checked the totals against the requirements, we found that the hay alone met all the requirements. This is a very simple solution. A producer should always have hay analyzed, since poor hay might not meet the cow's needs.
Example 2 is more complicated. It became evident that corn silage was low in protein and minerals (particularly phosphorus). Soybean meal and dicalcium phosphate were added to meet the deficiencies. The ration was low in dry matter but since the nutrient needs were met, this is no problem. The same procedure of multiplication shown in Example 1 was used.
The extreme difference in nutritional requirements between feeding a pregnant dry cow and a lactating superior cow is seen when you examine examples 1 and 2. The system shown in these examples can be used to balance rations for any beef animal and with any suitable feedstuffs.
| Example 2. 1100 lb Cow Superior Milking Ability (first 3-4 mo after calving) | |||||
| Feed source | Dry Matter lb | Total Protein lb | TDN lb | Ca lb | P- lb |
| Furnished by 60 lbs. Corn silage (Table 2, no. 20) | 19.8 | 1.62 | 13.8 | .046 | .044 |
| Furnished by 2.5 lbs Soybean meal (Table 2, no. 36) | 2.3 | 1.03 | 1.8 | .005 | .027 |
| Furnished by .1 lb Dicalcium Phosphate | .1 | .034 | |||
| Total | 22.2 | 2.65 | 15.6 | .085 | .071 |
| Requirements | 22.3 | 2.6 | 14.5 | .085 | .060 |
| Deficiencies | 2.75 | -- | -- | -- | -- |
Meeting summer nutritional needs of a brood cow herd in Georgia is relatively simple if good pastures have been established (see "Establishing Pastures"). Manage pastures properly by soil testing and then liming and fertilizing according to needs. Maximum fertilizer applications may not always be advisable unless the forage is needed. Your county agent can help with soil testing and planning fertilizer programs. Control weeds by mowing or with chemicals to improve pasture production.
Pastures are most nutritious in the early part of the growing season and generally become poorer in quality in late summer. This is one reason it is so important to coordinate the calving season with the forage program. The best weaning season for most Georgia producers is late summer or early fall.
Pastures are most nutritious when the grasses are grazed relatively short. Mow to improve quality when top growth becomes excessive and remove the excess for hay. This growth will likely be poor quality hay. Refertilize the pasture in mid or late season to improve quality of the forage. There may be times when dry cows can use late season or frosted Bermuda or Bahia, but a protein supplement may be needed. Use rotation grazing some of the time for best use of forage.
Extension agronomists developed the models in Figure 5 to visualize suggested forage systems for beef cattle in north and south Georgia.
Other factors closely related to summer nutrition are discussed in more detail in other sections of this bulletin. They are mentioned here because they are related to this phase of the herd management.
Water Supply. (Refer to "Miscellaneous Equipment and Preparations") Check quality and availability of water frequently during the summer.
Minerals. (Refer to "Essential Nutrients") Check mineral boxes frequently during summer. Be sure they stay full and are in shade. Some producers place mineral feeders away from the water supply to encourage cattle to graze the entire pasture area.
Parasite Control. You must control internal and external parasites in order to have a good summer nutrition program. (Refer to "Herd Health and Parasite Control" for more information.)
Creep feeding is practiced, but there is no assurance that it is always profitable. There are times when creep feeding is not advisable:
Some conditions exist when creep feeding may be advisable:
Some producers separate cows with bull or steer calves from those with heifers when the calves are four or five months old. They then creep feed only the bull or steer calves. If you decide to creep feed, it is not necessary to buy a commercial feed. Simple home mixes are very satisfactory. The following mixes are suggested for creep feeding:
Locate creep feeders in shade where cattle rest. Water and mineral supply areas are ideal. Keep feed fresh and dry and do not let feeders become empty once feeding has started.
Winter feeding can be complicated, difficult, and costly, but it is perhaps the most important phase of herd management in Georgia. It is estimated that 80 percent of the variable costs in a brood cow operation are involved in winter feeding. If good management practices and proper planning techniques are followed, however, winter feeding can be relatively less expensive and cattle performance can be improved.
A controlled breeding program timed to work in harmony with forage production on a farm provides the basis for planning an effective and efficient winter feeding system. If calves are weaned and the cows are dry in late summer, they can effectively utilize the low quality forage available on most Georgia farms at that season. Examples of low quality forage are: excess growth of summer perennial grasses, cool season perennials, and crop residue fields. If cows are in good flesh, a condition that must be estimated by an experienced manager, they can normally stay on these low quality pastures until calving time. The quality of residues and frosted warm-season grass may decline rapidly after frost. You may want to leave cows on the lower quality pasture (if it is sufficient for their needs) until they calve and then move the cows with calves to a separate area and start the winter feeding program.
Forages should be analyzed and a ration balanced to meet the needs of a particular production class of beef animal. Some of the more common systems used in Georgia to meet the needs of an average brood cow nursing a calf are (daily feed):
Supplementary protein or energy is sometimes needed in wintering programs. When the roughage or pasture does not meet the cows' needs, there are several alternatives: Limited intake protein-energy blocks; pellets containing various protein-energy analyses which can be fed on the ground; molasses-urea liquid mixes; "hot mixes," which usually contain salt to limit the intake of protein and/or grain; limited hand-fed amounts of protein and/or grain in troughs. Your county agent or livestock specialist can help you decide on kind and amount of supplements needed.
Winter annuals can help provide an adequate and nutritious wintering program for lactating cows. Winter small grains, ryegrasses, and clovers are used widely in Georgia for wintering cows. These pastures are high in protein (up to 20%) and highly digestible (up to 70% TDN). Grass Tetany Caution: Brood cows grazing cool-season grasses are susceptible to grass tetany. Grass tetany (magnesium tetany) is characterized by a low magnesium content in a brood cow's blood. It is sometimes caused by cows grazing cool season, magnesium deficient grasses. Paralysis and death can result from acute cases of grass tetany. Refer to SR 6012, "Grass Tetany and Its Control," Georgia Cow-Calf Handbook, for a detailed discussion of grass tetany. A sound management program can reduce the incidence of this problem:
Mature brood cows which are nursing calves are most susceptible to grass tetany.
Considering the grass tetany problem and the expense involved, limited grazing is recommended when you use annual pastures for wintering brood cows. Graze such crops as small grains, ryegrass, clovers, or mixtures of these for two to four hours per day. When forage is adequate, this time will allow cows to fill. Remove cows before they start walking or lay down. Do not provide other feed, water, or mineral on winter grazing. After removing cows, provide, in addition to water and minerals, one of the following: (a) free-choice average hay, corn stover, other crop residue roughages, or frosted grass or stubble field grazing; (b) 30 to 45 pounds average quality corn or sorghum silage.
A feed system for wintering brood cows using poultry house litter is used extensively in northern Georgia. A mixture of 70 to 80 percent litter and 20 to 30 percent grain makes a good wintering program. Feed cows about five pounds of hay per day in addition to this mix. (Refer to Extension Animal Science Mimeograph AS-1, "The Use of Poultry House Litter as a Feed Ingredient," for more information on the use of poultry house litter.)
Other variations and feeding systems will satis-factorily winter brood cows. No single method is best in every situation. Choose a system that meets the cows' needs, is economical, and is adapted to your farm.
Be systematic in planning the stored feed, supplement, and pasture needs for your herd. The following steps are suggested as a means of estimating feed needs:
Length of winter feeding. This time may vary depending on breeding season, pasture program, and location. However, 140 days may be an average time for most of Georgia. You may wish to increase this to provide some emergency feed for summer drought or other emergencies.
Inventory herd. An animal unit approach may be useful in helping to estimate needs as follows:
1 animal unit = lactating brood cows and bulls
1/2-3/4 animal unit = yearling replacements or dry cows
1/2 animal unit = calves
Use thumb rule daily feed consumption estimates. Depending on the winter feeding program you use, you may need one or combinations of these feeds daily per animal unit:
Grass Hay - 20-25 lbs.
Grass-legume mixed hay - 20-25 lbs.
Corn silage - 40-50 lbs.
Sorghum silage - 50-60 lbs.
Protein supplement (depends on protein analysis of roughage)
Grain (depends on TDN of roughage)
Winter annual pastures - .3-.4 A (if limit grazed); 1-1.25 A (if free-choice grazed)
Estimate total feed needs and acres devoted to winter feed production. For example, let's
assume we are going to figure the winter feed needs and land needed to produce feed for 100
animal units using sorghum silage and winter annual pasture.
| Feed | Days | Daily Feed/ A.U. lb | Total/ A.U. | No. of A.U. | Total Feed T | Est/A Yield | Land Needed |
| Sorghum Silage | 140 | 45 lb. | 3.15 T | 100 | 315 T | 15 T | 21 A |
| Winter Annual Pasture | 140 | .3 A | 100 | 30 A |
This method provides only an approximation of winter feed needs. You may wish to keep greater amounts of stored feeds to prepare for emergency conditions. Use the oldest and poorest quality stored feeds first when feed is carried over from one year to the next. Also, use the poorest quality feeds for the dry, pregnant cows.
Progress in improving a beef herd depends largely on the quality of replacement heifers put in the herd. How well a replacement heifer performs is influenced by how well she is developed. To be most efficient and productive, a heifer must calve by the time she is 23 to 24 months of age, rebreed promptly, and wean a heavy calf. Research has shown that when heifers calve first as two-year-olds, they are more fertile and productive. On the average, they produce one more calf during their life span than when calving as three-year-olds. They also live longer. It is very expensive to keep a heifer for three years before getting any production.
Developing replacement heifers requires superior management. There can be no weak spots in the total management program when developing heifers to calve at two years of age.
Develop a plan to deal with the problems most likely to occur when calving at two years old. Most producers encounter similar problems: (1) heifers do not cycle early enough or conceive promptly; (2) two-year-old heifers may have calving problems; (3) heifers may wean extremely lightweight calves the first time; and (4) there are problems in getting heifers with their first calves rebred. You can handle these problems one at a time:
The heat cycle or the onset of the estrus cycle is primarily a function of age, size, and nutrition. In general, heifers should be 13 to 15 months old and weigh between 650 and 700 pounds if a high percentage of them are to show estrus. The large continental breeds should be some 50 to 100 pounds heavier. In order to achieve this weight goal, you must start when a heifer is still nursing her mother. She should weigh at least 400 pounds by weaning or she will have to gain too rapidly between weaning and breeding time. Such rapid gains might result in an extremely fat heifer with her productive usefulness impaired.
To determine the daily gain needed to achieve the desired weight at breeding time, use a systematic approach to calculate the needed gain as follows:
Step 1. Figure the weight gain needed between weaning and breeding age.
| Weight Desired At Breeding | Weight at Weaning | Amount of Gain Needed from Weaning to Breeding | ||
| 675 lbs |
- |
425 lbs |
= |
250 lbs |
Step 2. Figure the days from weaning to breeding age.
| Days in Age at Breeding | Age at Weaning | Days from Weaning to Breeding | ||
| 420 (14 mo.) |
- |
210 days |
= |
210 days |
Step 3. Figure the daily gain needed from weaning to breeding.
250 lbs. divided by 210 days = 1.2 lbs. per day needed gain
The next step is to use a system to achieve the amount of gain needed to get the heifer to the desired weight in this period of time. It would probably be good to try to exceed this gain slightly, since some of the heifers will not gain as fast as the others. Gains of over 1.75 pounds per day on heifers are usually not desirable since the heifers may become obese. Several systems will help you achieve the desired gain:
System 1. High quality temporary winter pastures such as small grains or clover will do the job very well. When grazing is short due to cold weather or other problems, grain, silage, or hay may need to be supplemented.
System 2. Silage plus supplement. This system works well, particularly if good corn silage is used. It may be necessary to feed a small amount of grain daily (2-3 pounds) to keep heifers gaining. One to 1-1/2 pounds of 40 percent protein supplement will also be needed. Have the silage analyzed for nutrient content.
System 3. Average quality permanent pastures plus supplemental grain and protein. Analyze forage to determine the amount of protein and energy needed.
System 4. Drylot feeding. Use a complete grain and hay ration to do the job. A sample ration is 10 pounds good quality grass hay, a half pound of 41 percent cottonseed meal and 2-1/2 pounds ground corn. This, however, could be the most expensive system.
See the section on nutrition for more information on feeding replacement heifers. In all cases, check the weight of the heifers occasionally during the growing phase.
You can partially solve this problem by solving problem 1: get them to the proper weight and size. In addition, you can breed these heifers to a bull which is known to sire calves with small birthweights and you can put heifers due to calve for the first time in a separate lot and give them special attention at calving time. In all cases, heifers with their first calves are about two to three times as likely to have difficult births as mature cows.
Light weaning weights are naturally going to be more common with heifers than with mature cows. Part of this problem is because heifers are still growing and need part of their nourishment for this purpose; it may also be that heifers' nutritional needs are not adequately met. Feed heifers extra energy feed such as grain or high quality silage while they are nursing their calves. You may also have to creep feed the calves of heifers.
Getting heifers rebred promptly for their second calf is a matter of timing and nutrition. Expose heifers bred for their first calves 20 to 30 days ahead of the mature cows. Expose them for about 60 days and then remove the bull. About 60 days later, have these heifers examined for pregnancy and remove the nonpregnant heifers. Such a program allows an extra heat cycle for the heifers to be on schedule with the mature cows for their second calf.
A great deal also depends on nutrition during the lactation period. As stated previously, give limited grain to heifers with their first calves, if needed. Three to five pounds of grain per day, plus the required protein supplement in addition to pasture or hay is probably a good investment. It not only assures a greater percentage of heifers rebred, but also results in heavier weaning weights.
Many problems result when a cow-calf herd is run together year-round. It is easier to leave all the cattle in one group, and small producers may find it very difficult to keep various production groups separated. However, failure to separate various classes in a cattle herd can cause some serious management problems.
If mature brood cows are run with heifers nursing their first calves during the winter, there will be some serious feeding problems. The old brood cows will push the young ones away from the feed. Animals that need feed the most will get the least. Many times, it is necessary to give extra feed to heifers while they are nursing their first calves.
Dry cows and nursing cows running together means part of the herd will be improperly fed. If the cows with calves are fed properly, the dry cows will be over-fed. This may not be harmful to the dry cows, but it is expensive and wasteful. A good practice is to move the cows with baby calves to a separate pasture as they drop their calves. This separation is best for feeding management and it also allows producers to isolate and identify cows that fail to calve at all.
If you do not separate bulls from the herd after breeding season, you cannot properly carry on a controlled breeding program. A controlled breeding program is one of the most basic management practices, and not separating the bulls prevents other good management practices being followed.
When producers do not separate bulls, it is usually because they lack a suitable bull holding pen. A bull pen should provide grazing and exercise for the bull and be well-fenced. An electric fence in addition to a good, strong woven wire or barbed wire fence contributes extra security. (Refer to the section on fencing for more information on building a bull pen.)
One other point emphasizes the importance of removing the bull from the herd after the breeding season -- it will prevent any breeding age heifer calves from getting bred too young. Heifer calves bred too young leads to death loss of heifers and calves produced, and promotes inbreeding in your herd.
Once the calves have been weaned at normal weaning time, do not allow them to return to the herd. They need a separate pasture and probably some supplemental feeding to prevent their losing weight.
Purebred producers may wish to separate their cows with bull calves from the cows with heifer calves when the calves are four to five months old. This practice allows the bull calves to be creep fed for extra growth without causing heifer calves to become overly fat.
Handle replacement heifers separately. They need to be kept growing at a rate that will get them to 650 to 700 pounds by the time they are 13 to 15 months old. Of course, they need to be separated from any breeding age bulls on your farm. Refer to the section on herd nutrition for recommendations on feeding various groups.
Some producers may be unable to follow all of these practices for separating production groups in a beef herd. Separating such groups, however, and giving them the proper feed and management appropriate for their class leads to greater returns from the overall cattle operation.
Limit your controlled seasonal cattle breeding program (which naturally results in a controlled calving season) to 90 days or less. If the season extends beyond 90 days, most advantages of this practice are lost. Controlled breeding is really the foundation for most of the other recommended management practices. There are several reasons for and advantages to a controlled breeding season.
Culling and selection of replacements based on production records is easier. To make meaningful comparisons among brood cows, calves must be born within a 75 to 90 day period. One of the main criteria for culling cows is the relative performance of their calves. You cannot accurately compare cows if the calving season is too extended. Acceptable performance implies not only weaning weight, but also that a cow produce a calf each 12 months.
A controlled breeding season means better care can be given cows at calving time. Percent calf crop is the major economic factor in a cow-calf operation, and care at calving time affects percent calf crop. Cows on a year-round calving season are difficult to check.
Herd health and management is also easier. Many jobs important to the health and management of a herd are more likely to be done properly if cows are on a controlled calving season. These practices include vaccination, dehorning, castration, identification, deworming, and weaning. If a cattle producer can perform all these jobs at one time, they are much more likely to get done, and the labor requirement will be much less. pregnancy testing and culling open cows can greatly influence percent calf crop and herd profits. These operations, however, cannot conveniently be carried on with year-round calving.
You can improve brood cow nutrition. Winter feeding of the brood cow is the most expensive phase of cow-calf production. If some of the cows are dry and some are nursing calves during the winter, the herd cannot be fed in the most efficient manner. Since cows nursing calves require at least 50 percent more energy than dry cows, neither group can be fed properly if they are running together.
Marketing or stocker-finisher operations are improved. A calf crop uniform in age and size can be marketed to a better advantage. Uniform groups of calves will usually bring several cents per pound more than those sold individually. If calves are uniform in age, they will also fit into on-the-farm stocker or feeding programs.
Length of Season: A short breeding season (and therefore a short calving season) of 90 days or less is recommended. In addition to the reasons for a controlled breeding season already mentioned, a short breeding season is usually most profitable. Assuming a constant weaning date, early calving cows wean heavier calves than cows calving late in the season.
Table 3 illustrates the improvement in weaning weight when you shorten the calving season. When a constant weaning weight and a two-pound average daily gain are used, a 75-day calving season produces a 46-pound average increase in weaning weight over a 120-day calving season.
Superior managers should strive for a breeding season as short as 60 to 75 days. Work done at
the Coastal Plain Experiment Station at Tifton demonstrates how the breeding season can be
reduced. They found that when fertile, active bulls were used on healthy, well-nourished, fertile
cows in single-bull breeding systems, 90 percent of the calves were born in the first 30 days of
the calving season.
| Table 3. Effect of Shortening Breeding Season on Average Weaning weight | |
| No. Calving Days | Average Weaning Weight |
| 120 | 450 |
| 75 | 496 |
A Split Calving Season: Some producers may prefer a split calving season. For example, producers may divide their cattle into two herds, with one herd calving in October, November, and December. The other herd might calve in January, February, and March. This system could possibly reduce the bull cost by allowing a producer to breed more cows per bull. Bulls, however, would require better management and nutrition. A split calving season might allow some producers to use feed supplies better and to extend the marketing season. The advantages of a controlled calving season can still be realized in such a system, since both herds could be managed separately. Consider the need for extra labor and facilities for a split season.
Time of Year for Calving: In the southern states, avoid summer calves. Summer calves are born from approximately May 1 to September 1.
Calves born from September 1 through early April may perform satisfactorily in Georgia. The calving period most desirable for a specific operation within the recommended dates will be influenced by several factors.
Feed Supply. The most expensive phase of brood cow nutrition is the winter feeding of lactating brood cows. This factor favors a late winter or early spring calving for many operators. In areas where winter annual pastures are well adapted, a fall or early winter season may be desirable. Young calves gain rapidly when their dams are grazing winter annuals, and cows usually return in heat early.
Labor. The calving season requires a relatively large amount of time and labor. A cattle producer with a diversified farming operation should consider the availability of labor when setting the calving season.
Marketing or use of calves. The average relative price of calves at weaning or selling time is important in deciding on the calving season. For example, if feeder calf prices are best in spring or early summer, then this would favor fall-dropped calves, providing the extra value would offset the extra cost of weaning such a calf. If calves are to be backgrounded and/or finished, then a calving season to fit this schedule is important.
Weather. Extremely cold weather will not usually be a critical factor in the state. Though north Georgia may get quite cold during mid-winter, a winter calving program can be planned for any area of the state. A summer calving program is discouraged. Summer calves will still be nursing in the fall, when pastures are generally at their poorest.
In most herds on a year-round calving season, a natural calving concentration already exists. Nutrition is the major factor responsible for brood cows cycling and conceiving. Since pastures are usually at peak quality in spring and early summer, a natural concentration of calving may occur in late winter and spring. No system for getting on a controlled breeding program can completely eliminate delaying some cows from their current calving schedule. Taking advantage of the natural concentration in a herd can, however, minimize the problem.
When you convert from year-round calving to a 90-day controlled calving season, a three-year system presents less loss and fewer problems than a one-year system. The following steps are suggested for getting on a controlled breeding system:
Figure 6 illustrates how a short (60-day) breeding season works.
Figure 7 shows how the controlled breeding system could work. The example is developed for a final long-range January to March calving season. Dates can be changed to adapt to different desired calving dates.
| Figure 6. Short Breeding Season (60 Days) | ||||
| Pregnancy examine | Breed heifers | Breed mature cows |
Remove bull |
Remove bull |
| Aug. 1 | Feb. 20 | Mar. 22 | May 1 | June 1 |
 |
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|
|
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| June J A | S O N D J F | M A | M | June |
| Figure 7. Getting on Controlled Breeding | ||||||
| First Year< |