Cabbage and leafy greens (collards, kale, turnips and mustard) are grown throughout Georgia and are adapted to all soil types and climatic conditions in the state. Most of the commercial production is in the southern part of the state, with limited production in the northeast mountains.

Crop Establishment

Turnips and mustard are direct seeded and cabbage, kale and collards are direct seeded or transplanted.

Growers of greens have the choice between hybrid and open-pollinated cultivars. One ounce of collard, kale or cabbage seed contains approximately 9,000 seed. A spacing of 12 inches by 36 inches requires 14,520 plants per acre. Two ounces of good quality seed should produce enough plants for one acre.

Producers of containerized plants specialize in growing plants in greenhouses that are designed specifically for the production of transplants. To contract with a grower for transplants, specify the cell size desired, the variety to be planted and a specific delivery date of the plants.

Also, determine whether the plant grower or the greens grower furnishes the seed. Some green-house growers use mechanical seeders that require coated seed, which increases seed cost. The cost to the grower for this type of transplant will vary, depending on the volume ordered and the cell size of the tray.

Growing containerized transplants is a highly skilled, intensive operation that is usually not economically feasible for the greens producer.

Transplanting

Although some greens are seeded directly in the field, there are several recommended practices to follow. Direct seeding has several problem areas that must be dealt with:

Weed control is usually much more difficult with direct seeding.
Direct seeding requires especially well-made seedbeds and specialized planting equipment adequate to control depth of planting and in-row spacing.
Because of the shallow planting depth required for greens seed, the field must be nearly level to prevent seeds from being washed away or covered too deeply with water-transported soil.
Spring harvest dates will be at least four weeks later for direct-seeded greens. At soil temperatures of 59 degrees, 68 degrees, and 77 degrees F, cabbage seeds require 15, nine, and six days, respectively, for emergence. Turnips will emerge at soil temperatures of 50 degrees, 59 degrees, 68 degrees, and 77 degrees F in five, three, two and one day, respectively, from seeding.

Typically, four- to six-week old cabbage, kale, or collards seedlings are transplanted into the field. As with most other vegetable crops, field grown (bare-root) or container-grown transplants may be used. Container grown transplants retain transplant growing media (soil-substitute) attached to their roots after they are removed from the container (flat or tray). Many growers prefer this type of transplant because it:

is less subject to transplant shock,
usually requires little, if any, replanting,
resumes growth more quickly after transplanting, and
grows and produces more uniformly.

Cabbage, collard and kale, like other transplants, should be hardened off before they are transplanted in the field. Hardening off is a technique used to slow plant growth prior to field setting so the plant can more successfully withstand unfavorable conditions in the field.

Cabbage, collard and kale transplants are sensitive to environmental conditions. Any condition that results in a prolonged cessation or checking of vegetative growth during the early stages of plant development can trigger the onset of bolting. Bolting is the development of small, unmarketable heads or flower stalks while the plant is still immature. Flower stalks can form when plants are grown below 50 degrees F in the bed and are exposed to periods of cool weather (35-50 degrees F) following field set-ting. Lack of nitrogen or other nutrient stresses as well as competition from weeds, insects or diseases that slow vegetative growth can promote flowering. Transplants that are older and less vigorous are more likely to flower than young, fast-growing plants. Bare-rooted plants that have been exposed to drying or severe water stress immediately following transplanting are also more likely to flower.

Flowering (heading out) can be prevented by:

Maintaining a steady, moderate rate of growth in the plant bed.
Setting out young, healthy transplants that have not been stressed.
Using transplant water to initiate root growth and remove air pockets from the soil.
Setting out plants under favorable conditions for growth and irrigating to relieve moisture stress.
Maintaining good vegetative growth, particularly for the first few weeks after field setting.

Cabbage and collard transplants should never have flower buds at transplanting. An ideal transplant is young (four inches tall with a stem approximately 3/8 to 1/4 inch in diameter), exhibits rapid vegetative growth, and is slightly hardened at transplanting time. Hardening may be indicated in the greens by a slight purpling of the outer part of the leaves. Good growth following transplanting helps assure a well-established plant.

Transplants should be set out as soon as possible after they are removed from their containers or pulled. If it is necessary to hold greens transplants for several days before transplanting them, keep them cool (around 55 to 65 degrees F if possible) and prevent drying out the roots prior to transplanting. When setting out plants, place roots 3-4 inches deep.

At transplanting, an appropriate fertilizer starter solution should be applied (see the section on fertilizer starter solutions). After transplanting (especially within the first two weeks), it is very important that soil moisture be maintained so that plant roots can become well established.

Plant Spacing

The optimal plant population per acre depends upon the plants growth habit (compact, medium or spreading), size (small, medium or large) at maturity, vigor of specific cultivars, climate, soil moisture and nutrient availability, and soil productivity. Check these characteristics for each crop to determine plant spacing.

Varieties

Turnip

Approximate Number of Seed/Pound: 240,000 (15,000/ounce)

Seeding Rate Per Acre: 1 to 2 pounds if drilled; 1 pound if precision seeded

Spacing of Plants in Row:

Processing Greens - 1/2 to 1 inch
Tops and Roots - 1 to 2 inches
Processing Roots - 3 to 4 inches

Minimum Row Spacing:12 to 18 inches

Normally planted in single row on 36-inch spacings; can plant four rows with rows 14 inches apart on a 6-foot bed for processing.

Planting Dates: August through early October; early February through early April. A heavy frost or light freeze will damage newly emerged greens; therefore, late fall and winter plantings may be risky. If weather is favorable, a stand may be established during these times.

Depth to Plant Seed: 1/8 to 1/4 inch

Days from Planting to when Harvest Begins: 35 to 50 days, depending on weather and variety.

Representative Varieties:

Purple Top Globe
Seven Top (greens only)
Tokyo Cross (white roots, early)
Shogoin (white)
Just Right (white roots, early)
White

Mustard

Approximate Number of Seed/Pound: 240,000 (15,000/ounce)

Seeding Rate/Acre: 2 to 3 pounds if drilled; 1 pound if precision seeded

Spacing of Plants in Row: 5 to 10 inches

Minimum Row Spacing: 18 inches

Normally planted in single row on 36-inch spacings; can plant four rows with rows 14 inches apart on top of a 6-foot bed for processing.

Planting Dates: August through early October; early February through early April. A heavy frost or light freeze will damage newly emerged greens, so late fall and winter plantings may be risky. If weather is fav-orable, a stand may be established during these times.

Depth to Plant Seed: 1/8 to 1/4 inch

Days from Planting to when Harvest Begins: 35 to 50 days, depending on weather and variety.

Varieties:

Florida Broadleaf
Slobolt
Southern Giant Curled
Tendergreen
Chinese Evergreen

Collard

Approximate Number of Seed/Pound: 144,000 (9,000/ounce)

Seeding Rate/Acre: 1 to 2 pounds if drilled; 1/4 pound if precision seeded

Row Spacing: If young collard plants are to be harvested similar to turnip greens, rows should be 12 to 18 inches apart with plants 2 to 4 inches apart in the row. For cutting entire plants when half to full size or for "cropping," rows should be 18 to 36 inches apart with plants 12 to 18 inches apart in the row.

Planting Dates: Late January to early April - seeding

February through March - transplanting
August through September - seeding
August through October - transplanting

Depth to Plant Seed: 1/4 inch

Days from Planting to when Harvest Begins: 60 to 80 days for seeds; 4 to 6 weeks for transplants

Varieties:

Vates
Georgia
Blue Max (trial)
Champion (trial)
Heavi-crop (trial)

Kale

Approximate Number of Seed/Pound: 144,000 (9,000/ounce)

Seeding Rate/Acre: 1 to 2 pounds if drilled; 1/4 pound if precision seeded; 2 to 3 ounces for producing green-house transplants in containers; 6 to 8 ounces for producing transplants in bed systems.

Spacing of Plants in Row: 8 to 12 inches

Minimum Row Spacing: 18 inches - kale is sometimes grown by putting three rows on a 6-foot bed. More often, kale is grown in a 30- to 36- inch row spacing.

Planting Dates: Late January to early April - seeding

February through March - transplanting
August through September - seeding
August through October - transplanting

Depth to Plant Seed: 1/4 inch

Days from Planting to Harvest Begins: 60-80 days seed; 4 to 6 weeks transplant

Varieties:

Dwarf Siberian
Vates

Cabbage

Approximate Number of Seed/Pound: 144,000 (9,000/ounce)

Seeding Rate Per Acre: 1 pound if drilled; 1/4 pound if precision planted; 2 to 3 ounces for producing green-house transplants in containers; 6 to 8 ounces for producing transplants in bed systems

Spacing of Plant in Row: 9 to 12 inches. Head size can be controlled to some extent by plant spacing. Space varieties such as Rio Verde or A&C No. 5 around 9 inches if smaller heads are desired.

Minimum Row Spacing: 36 inches

Planting Dates: Fall Production - Direct seed early July through August for production beginning in October through December; or transplant beginning in mid-August thru mid-September.

Winter Production - Direct seed or transplant September through October for production in late December through February.

Spring Production - Direct seed or transplant November to early February for production in April, May, June

Depth to Plant Seed: 1/8 to 1/4 inch

Days from Planting to when Harvest Begins: For transplants, 70 to 120 days, depending upon variety and planting dates; for direct seed, 90 to 140 days, depending upon variety and planting dates.

Special Cultural Information: Sensitive to extremely acid soils (low pH); soil test, then lime according to recommendations. Cabbage plants have very limited root systems; therefore, fertilizer should be placed in the row. On soils with low calcium, there is a possibility of tip burn during dry weather.

Varieties:
A&C Plus #5	Grand Slam	Greenboy
Fortuna (spring)	Rio Verde	Bravo
Greencup	Solid Blue 770	Market Prize
Gourmet	Sunup	Superette
Blueboy	Headstart	Ocala (spring)
Solid Blue 760	Dynasty	Conquest
Quisto	Olympic (trial)
Red types:	Red Rookie	Red Ace
Savoy types:	Savoy King	Savoy Ace

Soils and Fertilizer Management

Wayne J. McLaurin, Darbie M. Granberry and W. O. Chance, Extension Horticulturists

Georgia has a varied climate, from the warm Coastal Plain to the cool mountain areas, that provides a long growing season for producing cabbage and leafy greens. Although these plants grow best in light, fertile, well-drained soils, with proper soil management they can be grown successfully in a wide range of soil types throughout Georgia.

Soil Management

Plants depend on the soil for physical support and anchorage, nutrients, and water. The degree to which the soil adequately provides these factors depends upon topography, soil type and soil structure. Under cultivated conditions, soil management significantly influences the soil's capacity to enhance plant growth and productivity.

Tillage is a general term for any operation that disrupts and/or moves the soil typically within 10 to 12 inches of the soil surface. Land preparation involves one or more tillage operations performed to make the soil more suitable for seeding and seedling (or transplant) establishment by providing the best soil structure for root growth and development.

The root system development of cabbage and leafy greens is influenced (and in many cases is limited) by the soil profile. If there is a hard pan, clay pan, compacted layer, or another dense formation of soil, root growth will be restricted. Cabbage and leafy greens are shallow rooted; under favorable conditions roots will grow to a depth of 18 to 24 inches. Root development is severely limited by compacted soil, so proper land preparation should eliminate or significantly reduce soil compaction.

Tillage with a moldboard ("bottom") plow provides the greatest soil volume conducive to vigorous root growth. This technique allows the development of more extensive root systems, which are more efficient extractors of nutrients and water from the soil. Disking after moldboard plowing tends to recompact the soil and should be avoided.

Compaction pans are present in many Georgia soils. They are formed principally by machinery and, when present, are normally at or just below plow depths. Even though compaction pans may be only a few inches thick, their inhibitory effects on root growth can significantly reduce greens yields.

If a compaction pan exists just below or near moldboard plow depth, disrupting this hard pan by subsoiling to a depth of 16 to 18 inches will allow the development of a more extensive root system and help to increase water infiltration.

If there is an abundance of plants or plant residues on the soil surface, disking, or mowing followed by disking, is usually advisable prior to moldboard plowing. Immediately prior to transplanting, final soil preparation and/or bedding may be accomplished by a rotary tiller, bed press, bedding disk or double disk hiller in combination with a leveling board. This technique provides a crustless, weed-free soil for the establishment of transplants.

Cabbage and leafy greens may be planted or transplanted on flat or raised beds. A raised bed will warm up more quickly and enhance earlier growth. Cabbage and leafy greens do poorly in excessively wet soils, so raise the bed to facilitate drainage and help prevent "wet feet" in low or poorly drained soils. Keep in mind, however, that cabbage or leafy greens planted on raised beds might require more irrigation during drought conditions.

Lime and fertilizer management is the application of optimal amounts of lime and fertilizer (or nutrient-containing materials) at the most appropriate time(s) and by the most effective method. Indirectly, fertilizer management is also concerned with cultural methods, tillage practices and cropping sequences that maximize usefulness (efficiency) of native soil fertility and applied plant nutrients.

Starter Fertilizer Solution

Fertilizer materials dissolved in water and applied to the soil around plant roots are called starter solutions. They promote rapid root development and early plant growth. Starter solutions for cabbage and leafy greens transplants should contain a high rate of phosphorus (an approximate ratio of 1 Nitrogen:3 Phosphorus:0 Potassium is common) and should be mixed and applied according to manufacturer's directions.

Most starter solutions consist of three pounds of a formulated material (such as 10-34-0, which weighs approximately 11 lbs./gallon) mixed in 50 gallons of water. Approximately 1/2 pint of the starter solution is normally applied per plant. In addition to supplying phosphorus, which may be inadequately available (especially in cold soils in the early spring), the starter solution supplies water and firms the soil around roots. This solution also helps eliminate air pockets, which can cause root drying and subsequent plant or root damage. A starter solution is no substitute for adequate rainfall or irrigation after transplanting.

Be certain to mix and apply starter fertilizer according to the manufacturer's recommendations. If too highly concentrated (too strong of a mixture), a starter solution can kill plant roots and result in dead or stunted plants. When mixing and applying from a large tank, it is best to mix a fresh solution only after the tank becomes practically empty. This practice helps to prevent the gradual increase in concentration that will occur if a portion of the previous mix is used for a portion of the water component in subsequent batches.

Fertilizer Management

It is impossible to recommend a specific fertilizer management program that has universal application for all cabbage and leafy greens fields. In addition to crop nutrient requirements and general soil types, fertilizer recommendations should take into consideration soil pH, residual nutrients, and inherent soil fertility. Therefore, fertilizer recommendations based on soil analysis have the greatest potential for providing cabbage and leafy greens with adequate but not excessive fertility. The application only of needed amounts results in optimum growth and yield without wasting fertilizer, encouraging luxury consumption of plant nutrients or causing fertilizer burn.

Recommendations based on soil tests should result in the most effective lime and fertilizer management program possible. However, recommendations can be accurate only if valid soil sampling procedures are used to collect the samples submitted for analysis. To be beneficial, a soil sample must reliably represent the field or "management unit" from which it was taken. Improperly collected, compiled, or labeled soil samples are of dubious benefit and may even be detrimental. If there are questions about soil sampling, please contact your county Extension office for information.

Soil pH

The soil pH strongly influences plant growth, the availability of nutrients and the activities of micro-organisms in the soil. It is important to keep soil pH in the proper range for production of the best yields of high quality cabbage and leafy greens. Soil test results indicate soil pH levels and are use to recommend the amount of lime required to raise the pH to the desired range.

The optimum pH range for cabbage and leafy greens production is 6.0 to 6.5. Coastal Plain soils, which predominate in south Georgia, become strongly acid (pH 5 or less) with time if lime is not applied. A soil test is essential for determining how much lime should be applied.

Calcium (Ca) has limited mobility in soil; therefore, lime should be broadcast and thoroughly incorporated to a depth of six to eight inches to neutralize the soil acidity in the root zone. To allow adequate time for neutralization of soil acidity (raising the pH), lime should be applied and thoroughly incorporated two to three months before seeding or transplanting. However, if application cannot be made this early, liming will still be beneficial if applied and incorporated at least one month prior to seeding or transplanting.

Generally, maintaining a soil pH of 6.0 to 6.5 will provide adequate soil test Ca levels (200 + lbs/A on Coastal Plain soils; 400+ lbs/A on Piedmont soils). If the soil pH is between 6.0 and 6.5 and the soil test Ca level drops below 300 lbs/A on Coastal Plain soils or 500 lbs/A on Piedmont soils, apply 800 to 1000 pounds of calcium sulfate (gypsum) per acre.

Two liming materials commonly available in Georgia are calcitic and dolomitic limestone. In addition to calcium, dolomitic limestone contains six to 12 percent magnesium. Because Coastal Plain soils are inherently low in magnesium, dolomitic limestone is usually the preferred liming material.

Phosphorous and Potassium Recommendations

The following chart indicates the pounds of fertilizer nutrients recommended for varying soil fertility levels according to University of Georgia soil test ratings of residual phosphorus (P) and potassium (K).

Phosphorus ratings:	Low	Med.	High	Very High
Recommended P is:	160	110	60	-0-
Potassium ratings:	Low	Med.	High	Very High
Recommended K is:	160	110	60	-0-
P - represents pounds of P2O5 recommended per acre
K - represents pounds of K2O recommended per acre
Note: If soil testing is done by a lab or other than the University of Georgia Soils Testing Laboratory, the levels recommended above may not apply.

All the recommended phosphorus should be applied during or near transplanting. A starter solution consisting of three pounds of 10-34-0 (or similar material) mixed in 50 gallons of water should be applied at a rate of 1/2 pint per transplant. Application of around 100 to 150 pounds per acre of a pop-up fertilizer promotes earlier growth, particularly in cool/cold soils. For early growth stimulation, pop-up fertilizer should be banded two to three inches to the side of the plants and two to three inches below the roots.

One-third to one-half of the potassium should either (1) be applied in two bands, each two to three inches to the side and two to three inches below the level of plant roots or (2) be incorporated into the bed prior to transplanting. Broadcasting over the entire field is usually less effective than banding. An acceptable alternative to field broadcasting is the "modified broadcast" method by which a preplant fertilizer containing nitrogen, potassium and any recommended micronutrient is broadcast in the bed area only. For example, on a 72 inch wide bed a swath (60 to 72 inches wide) of fertilizer is uniformly applied centered over the bed. Incorporation by roto-tilling will help reduce water and wind movement of the fertilizer and will also place some fertilizer in the root zone. The remainder of the recommended potassium should be applied in one to three applications as needed. It can be banded in an area on both sides of the row just ahead of the developing root tips. On sandy soils, the maximum number of applications is usually more effective.

Nitrogen Recommendations

Typical Coastal Plain soils require 175 to 225 pounds of nitrogen (N) per acre. Extremely sandy soils may need additional N or an increased number of applications. Increasing the number of applications may prove beneficial because it will cut down on the amount lost to leaching from adding too much fertilizer at one time. Piedmont, Mountain and Limestone Valley soils usually require 150 to 180 pounds of N per acre for greens production.

Required N rates will vary depending on season rainfall, soil type, soil temperature, irrigation, plant population, and method and timing of applications.

For typical Coastal Plains soils, one-fourth to one-third of the recommended nitrogen should be incorporated in the bed prior to transplanting. Broadcasting over the entire field is usually less effective than banding.

An acceptable alternative to field broadcasting is the "modified broadcast" method (described under "Phosphorus and Potassium Recommendations"). Incorporation by roto-tilling will help reduce water and wind movement of the fertilizer and will place some fertilizer in the root zone. Apply the remaining recommended N in one to three applications as needed. It can be banded in an area on both sides of the row just ahead of the developing root tips. For heavier Piedmont, Mountain and Limestone Valley soils, one to two applications are usually sufficient.

Magnesium, Sulfur, Zinc and Boron Recommendations

If the soil test indicates magnesium is low and if lime is recommended, apply dolomitic limestone. If magnesium is low and lime is not recommended, apply 25 pounds of elemental magnesium per acre. Apply a minimum of 10 pounds of sulfur per acre, one pound of actual boron per acre, and, if soil test indicates zinc is low, five pounds of actual zinc per acre. Sulfate of potash magnesia (Sul-Po-Mag or K-Mag) may be used to supply a portion of the recommended K20 and to supply magnesium (Mg) and sulfur (S).

Foliar Application of Fertilizer

The fact that plants can absorb a number of fertilizer elements through their leaves has been known for some time. However, leaves of many vegetable plants are not especially well adapted for absorbing nutrients because they have a waxy cuticle. In fact, plants may appear to benefit from foliar uptake when the actual cause of improvement may be from that component of the nutrient spray which reaches the soil and provides essential nutrients for subsequent root uptake.

The effectiveness of applying macronutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium to plant leaves is questionable. It is virtually impossible for greens (waxy leaved cabbage, collards and kale) to absorb enough N, P or K through their leaves to meet their nutritional requirements; furthermore, it is un-likely that they could absorb sufficient amounts of macronutrients to correct major deficiencies. Al-though nitrogen may be absorbed within 24 hours after application, up to four days are required for potassium uptake and seven to 15 days for phos-phorus to be absorbed from foliar application.

The crucial question is whether foliar N, P, or K actually increases yield or enhances quality. Although some growers feel that foliar fertilizer should be used to supplement a soil-applied fertilizer program, re-search findings do not support this practice. If proper fertilizer management of soil-applied nutrients is used, supplementation by foliar fertilization is not usually required.

Foliar nutrients often are expected to cure a variety of plant problems, many of which may be unrelated to nutrition, such as reducing stress, aiding in healing frost or hail damaged plants or increasing plant resistance to various stresses and pests. Nutrients are effective as long as they are supplying a nutritional need; however, neither soil-applied nor foliar-applied nutrients are capable of performing "miracles."

After frost or hail occurs, some cabbage and leafy greens growers apply foliar nutrients to give the plants an "extra shot" to promote rapid recovery. However, if a proper fertilizer program is being used before foliage damage occurs, the plants don't need additional fertilizer. What they do need is time and the proper environment for the normal recovery processes to occur. The likelihood of deriving significant nutritional benefits from a foliar application of fertilizer to plants that have lost some of their leaves (or have a large proportion of their leaves severely damaged) is questionable.

Foliar application of sulfur, magnesium, calcium and micronutrients (based on soil test) may help alleviate deficiencies. An application of water-soluble boron (approximately l lb. of actual boron per acre) can be used when a deficiency occurs. However, they should be applied only if there is a real need for them and only in quantities recommended for foliar application. Application of excessive amounts can cause fertilizer burn and/or toxicity problems.

Diseases

Johnny Dan Gay, Extension Plant Pathologist

Cabbage and leafy greens crucifers are susceptible to a number of diseases that may seriously injure or even destroy the crop. Some diseases may cause only minor spotting, but because the leaves are consumed, the quality may be reduced below market standards. Prevention is the key to controlling all diseases affecting crucifers. Some of the diseases can be controlled with timely fungicide applications and others must be prevented altogether. This section will aid in the identification of diseases and discuss environmental conditions that favor disease development. Sources of infection are discussed relative to specific diseases on specific crops.

Black-Rot

Black-rot, caused by the bacterium Xanthomonas campestris, is the most serious disease of crucifers in Georgia. The bacterium attacks many species of the mustard family. Among these are cabbage, collards, kale, mustard and turnips. Plants may be affected at any stage of growth. This disease is seed-borne and is often introduced by contaminated seeds or infected trans-plants. In some areas of the country, the disease is of minor importance; however, under Georgia conditions the disease becomes serious and many growers sustain severe economic loss. In some cases the crop may be destroyed.

In the field, the disease is easily recognized by the presence of large yellow to yellow-orange V-shaped lesions extending inward from the margin of the leaf.

When infected seeds germinate, the resulting young plants usually die quickly; however, these plants serve as an inoculum source for other plants. If infection occurs in young seedlings, the disease is much more severe because the main stem becomes infected and the disease becomes systemic and moves throughout the plant. These plants remain stunted and the veins in the stem are black. Heads developed from these plants deteriorate rapidly after harvest.

The bacterium enters the vascular system of the plant principally through natural openings and injuries on the leaf. In time, the bacterium spreads in the vascular system of the leaf and stem. The disease spreads and causes most damage in wet, warm weather. It does not usually spread in dry weather and is inactivated at temperatures below 50 degrees F. The bacterium can survive in the soil for 14 to 42 days, depending on the season, and in old cabbage stems for 244 days. The disease is also carried over on weed hosts such as "pepper grass" and with wild mustard and turnips. The bacterium is spread by splashing rain, irrigation and running surface water as well as insects and other movement in the field while the plants are wet. There is no control for this disease. Prevention is the only way to avoid black rot.

Wirestem, Bottom-Rot and Head-Rot

Wirestem, Bottom Rot, and Head Rot are caused by Rhizoctonia solani. This fungus also is a common cause of damping-off. Wirestem is normally more serious in transplant beds; however, it can be a serious problem after plants are transplanted to the field. Cabbage, collard and kale planted in early fall are more vulnerable than spring plantings to Rhizoctonia injury. Wirestem infected plants are first infected at about soil level. The initial infection site may be as small as a pin point or extend an inch up the stems. This area shows a reddish brown discoloration and is very constricted. The infected plant may be bent or twisted without breaking -- hence the name Wirestem.

The Wirestem fungus is common to most Georgia soils. The amount of Rhizoctonia present is greatly influenced by the cropping history. Wirestem damage may be suppressed by adding a fungicide to the transplant water, and frequent irrigations during hot dry periods will reduce the incidence of the disease. This is accomplished by the cooling effect afforded the soil surface by water evaporation.

Rotating with grain crops, deep turning, and using a fungicide in the transplant water will greatly reduce the incidence of disease.

Black Leg caused by the fungus Phoma lingam is another disease that can cause serious loss to cabbage. Plants are usually infected in seed beds. Usually the first symptom is an oval, depressed, light brown canker near the base of the stem. The canker enlarges until the stem is girdled. Circular light brown spots also appear on the leaves. Soon after cankers or spots begin to form, they are marked with numerous black dots that are the fruiting bodies of the fungus. The fungus lives for at least three years in the soil and is carried on and in the seeds. Black leg is susceptible to environmental conditions, with the severity of the disease in direct proportion to the amount of rainfall received. The fungus grows well at all temperatures suitable to cabbage.

Alternaria Leafspot

Alternaria Leafspot, caused by the fungus Alternaria brassicae, may cause severe damage if left uncontrolled. The first symptom is a small dark spot on the leaf surface. As the spot enlarges, concentric rings, which are common to this disease develop. Blight spots enlarge progressively and can defoliate a plant if left uncontrolled. Alternaria leafspot is best controlled by applying a fungicide on a schedule throughout the entire growing season. This disease can be controlled with timely applications of fungicides.

Downy Mildew of Cabbage, Collard and Kale

Downy Mildew, caused by the fungus Peronospora parasitica, can be transferred from the transplant bed; however, it also can be introduced to new field plantings by windblown spores. Plants can be infected at any time during their growing period. Young plants infected early show a white mildew effect mostly on the under-side of the leaf; later, a slight yellowing shows up on the corresponding upper surface. The young leaf, when yellow, may drop off. Older leaves enlarge as they turn tan in color and papery in texture. The fungus produces a mass of gray growth or conidia on the undersurface of the leaves. The conidia or seed bodies are able to float long distances in cool moist air. With favorable weather, they may germinate in three to four hours and produce a new crop of seed bodies on a susceptible host in as few as four days.

Moisture and temperature are very important to the reproduction of this disease. Drizzling rains and cool weather are very favorable for disease development. The fungus grows best and disease develops most rapidly when the night temperatures are about 46 degrees F. for four or more consecutive nights and the day temperature does not rise much above 75 degrees F. A preventive spray schedule will help control downy mildew.

Downy mildew can infect turnips and mustard at any stage of growth. A grayish mold forms in spots and on the undersurface of the leaf. Later, a slight yellowing shows on the upper surface. Infected spots enlarge as they turn tan in color and papery in texture. When the disease is severe, the entire leaf dies. Heavily infected leaves may have a watery appearance, wilt and die before the mold growth is evident. Occasionally, affected leaves will show hundreds of very small, darkened specks.

Downy mildew overwinters in turnip roots or on old tops left in the field. The fungi form thick-walled resting spores in the turnip stem. These tiny bodies become mixed with seed at harvest and can be shipped to new locations. Once the fungus becomes established on young plants, numerous spores are produced and float long distances in cool, moist air. These tiny spores can germinate in three to four hours, and produce a new crop in three to four days.

Downy mildew can destroy a field of greens within three to four days after it is first noticed. Usually, damage is most severe on cabbage and leafy greens grown in the spring because conditions favoring its development are more likely to occur at this time.

Cabbage Yellows

Cabbage Yellows is caused by Fusarium oxysporum sp conglutinans. The cabbage strain severely attacks many varieties of kale, cabbage and collards and moderately affects turnips. The disease is often confused with black rot because of the similar symptoms. Both diseases cause leaf drop, curving stalks and the formation of buds on leafless stems. Yellows is more likely to produce a curve in the midrib or cause the leaf to grow on only one side. Fusarium can live for several years in the soil without being associated with any plant parts.

After the pathogen becomes established, it spreads by rains, and by equipment moving from one field to another. The fungus enters root hairs and spores are produced inside and outside of affected stems. Most currently recommended varieties are resistant to Yellows.

Leafspots of Mustard and Turnips

Leafspot of mustard and turnips is most often caused by Downy Mildew (Peronospora parasitica), White spot (Cercosporella brassicae), Anthracnose (Colletotrichem higginisianum) and Cercospora Leafspot (Cercospora brassicicola).

Cercospora Leafspot

Cercospora Leafspot is also a major problem on mustard and turnips. This disease is sometimes called frog-eye leafspot. Both Cercospora and Cerco-sporella develop under similar environmental conditions. The disease is most prevalent in a temperature range of 55 to 65 degrees F, with plenty of moisture.

Cercosporella Leafspot

This fungus is primarily a problem on turnips and mustard. The spots caused by Cercosporella are white and much larger than those caused by Cercospora, and are referred to as pale-spot.

White spot causes pale green to grayish white circular to angular spots on leaves. Each spot has a yellowish to brown halo or border around it. Numerous spots may occur on one leaf and merge, killing the entire leaf.

White spot overwinters on such plants as turnips, mustard, collards, cabbage and kale. The fungus produces numerous spores in each infected spot on the leaf. The spores are blown long distances by the wind. White spot reproduces and spreads at a temperature of 71 to 86 degrees F. This disease is usually more damaging to the fall greens crop.

Anthracnose

Anthracnose is often a serious problem on turnips and mustard and can infect kale and collards. The leafspots are small, pale gray desiccated circular spots. The same fungus infects turnip roots when spores fall from the leaves to the roots. The infected areas begin as small sunken dry spots. Under moist conditions, bacterial soft rot develops, destroying the entire root. The fungus overwinters on crop debris and in volunteer plants. The disease is most severe at temperatures of 79 to 86 degrees F, with plenty of moisture. The disease is prevented by rotation, deep turning and fungicide sprays.

White Rust of Spinach

White rust of spinach is caused by Albugo sp. White rust affects other crucifers, but the disease is most often a problem on spinach. It has been observed on mustard in a few instances. The disease over-winters by means of oospores. In perennial hosts, such as horse-radish, it persists in crowns and roots. Secondary spread is by conidia (spores), which are carried by air currents. Moisture on the host surface is essential for germination. White rust is recognized by a white growth usually on the under side of the leaves. White rust is controlled by soil and foliar applied fungicides.

Root-Knot Nematode

Root-knot nematode is the only nematode of econ-omic importance that affects crucifers. All species of root-knot are considered pests of crucifers. Cabbage, turnips, mustard and spinach are the main crops affected. Stunted growth along with chlorosis are the above-ground symptoms. Classic galling of the root system is key for diagnosing root-knot nematode damage. Rotation and chemical treatment are the control practices.

Viruses

Turnip Mosaic Virus disease is caused by any of many strains of turnip mosaic. These strains infect almost every crucifer, including weeds such as shepherd's purse and charlock.

Infected cabbage plants have mottled, distorted leaves. The production of leaf bloom is reduced, and the whole plant is stunted, especially when infected early in the season. Some strains show a darkened ring effect, especially on the older foliage, and irregular dead areas between the veins. This virus may be responsible for a stippling symptom on the outer and inner leaves of cabbage heads. The virus overwinters in perennial weeds. It is carried by many species of aphids.

Cauliflower Mosaic Virus disease is found more frequently on turnips. Plants infected are rarely stunted, but, most express a mosaic pattern. The most distinctive symptom is vein clearing. On cabbage, a black stippling symptom develops on the outer leaves of the mature heads.

Cabbage Mosaic causes black specking of cabbage heads at harvest or during storage. This mosaic is caused by a single or dual infection of viruses. A strain of turnip or cauliflower mosaic virus may be responsible. Infections late in the season cause minor losses, and early infections cause serious losses. The turnip and cauliflower mosaic viruses are transmitted principally by cabbage aphids and green peach aphids. Neither virus is seed-borne.

Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus (TSWV) can infect cabbage at any stage of growth. The virus is transmitted by thrips, and has been identified in Georgia since 1989.

Weed Control

C. Dale Monks, Extension Agronomist - Weed Science

Weeds compete with crops for water, nutrients and light to reduce yields. Generally, foreign weed material in the final harvested product reduces quality and can either lower the price received or, in some cases, make it unmarketable. Machine- or hand-harvesting crops infested with weeds is very difficult and time-consuming, and reduces overall efficiency.

The weed spectrum for spring- and fall-planted crops may be different, due to the environmental conditions. For spring-planted crops, annual grasses, common lambsquarters, common ragweed and wild radish are frequently encountered. Weeds usually become more of a problem as the temperature increases. For fall-planted crops, annual grasses, pigweeds, sicklepod, yellow nutsedge and annual sedges are commonly present for the entire growing season. Areas known to be heavily infested with wild radish or nutsedge should not be used for production if possible.

The most effective methods of weed control are cultural practices, because few chemical control alterna-tives exist. Shallow cultivation can be used to remove small weed seedlings but care should be taken to avoid crop injury. Hand-weeding may be necessary to remove large weeds or weeds emerging later in the growing season.

A stale seedbed method can be highly effective, especially for fall-planted crops. Seedbeds are established several weeks prior to planting to allow weed seeds to germinate and emerge. Reworking the bed kills the seedlings, reducing the overall weed population. Glyphosate and paraquat are registered for use in controlling emerged weeds prior to planting (including transplanting) cabbage, several leafy greens and turnips. Refer to the manufacturer's label for the specific crop listing. These herbicides are not selective, but can be effectively used in conjunction with the stale seedbed method.

In areas heavily infested with weeds, crop rotations may be necessary to reduce the populations. Rotating crops allows for the use of different chemical and cultural methods. Some herbicides can severely injure cabbage and greens at very low concentrations in the soil, so it is necessary to know what herbicide was used in previously planted crops. Rotational restrictions are listed on the herbicide label and must be followed to avoid severe injury or death to the crop.

Herbicides approved for use in cabbage and leafy greens production are listed in The Georgia Pest Control Handbook. The use of herbicides not registered for these crops is illegal and could result in crop injury and undesirable residues.

Insect Management

David B. Adams, Extension Entomologist

On-Farm Components of Insect Management

Researchers, farmers and agricultural consultants often overlook the basic principles of on-farm insect management when faced with insecticidally resistant insect pests that attack cabbage and leafy greens. Although theoretical principles may not always apply when working on the farm, certain fundamental practices can greatly enhance the chances of effectively controlling these insects. For example, diamondback moth caterpillar resistance to insecticides has been documented for all major insecticide classes: carbamates, organophosphates and pyrethroids. Although very few currently registered insecticides for cabbage or other leafy greens are effective against diamondbacks, the pests can be controlled in cabbage on Georgia farms. On-farm management has become difficult, but there has been continued success with various formulations of Bacillus thuringiensis occasionally tank-mixed with certain organo-phosphate insecticides that continue to perform adequately.

On-farm tests have consistently yielded 85 percent or greater marketable cabbage where these compounds have been used with the following basic practices: use of specially designed high pressure/high volume application equipment; application of insecticides at delivery speeds of no more than four mph; early, close-interval applications (every five days or less) of B. thuringiensis (BT); the addition of adequate spreading/sticking agents; use of an organophosphate insecticide tank-mixed with BTs only as-needed when DBM populations begin to increase; avoidance of insecticides that have proven to antagonize efforts to control DBM; and, monitoring pest populations so that other insecticides can be used only when necessary.

Although these measures will not eliminate insect-icide resistance, they will help to reverse resistance. After several years of this method of insecticide management, DBM can develop strains that will again be susceptible to other currently ineffective insecticides.

Foliage Feeding Caterpillars

Foliage feeders are the most important pests of cabbage and always pose a serious threat to quality and yield. Even though resistance to insecticides is a major concern, the single most significant problem in control of these pests is the difficulty in maintaining adequate coverage of the plants with insecticidal spray. Most of the eggs of the caterpillar pests are laid either in masses or singly on the underside of the foliage. The larvae, until mature, generally feed on the underside of the foliage or in the bud, making control very difficult.

Another significant problem is that different species of caterpillars are susceptible to different insecticides. When several species are infesting cabbage and greens at the same time, several insecticides may be necessary for adequate control. This increases the cost of production and also creates antagonistic effects in the control of certain pests. It is extremely important to identify the species complex of a given infestation, maintain control of the primary species and make judicious insecticide applications for the less significant pest as its population begins to increase.

Diamondback Moth Caterpillar

The diamondback moth caterpillar (DBM), Plutella xylostella, is the single most destructive pest to cabbage and leafy greens worldwide. Insecticide resistance has been documented in every corner of the globe and DBM is the key pest in most crucifer cultures. By definition, a key pest is the species whose presence triggers the initial, often early, insecticide applications. These early applications often destroy the natural enemies of both the key pest and secondary pests. Secondary pests may then become economically important. Biorational compounds that are "soft" on natural enemies and provide adequate control of DBM have found a solid niche in current management strategies.

Except for the adult stage, DBM completes its whole life cycle on the plant. DBM moths lay eggs singly on the underside of leaves. The larvae hatch in a day or so and feed on the underside. The larvae grow as large as 5/8 inch. The larvae is green and hangs by a silken thread when disturbed. They are very active when disturbed. Initial damage is small incomplete holes caused by young larvae and larger complete holes caused by mature larvae. The holes become larger as the leaf develops. The entire plant may become riddled with holes under moderate to heavy populations. Larvae also feed in the developing heads of cabbage, causing deformed heads and encouraging soft rots. The pupae of DBM is green and encased in a netlike cocoon that is attached to the foliage. Pupae reduce quality as a contaminant.

DBM attacks all types of leafy greens and cole crops during all parts of the growing season. DBM is a cold-hardy species, so it can survive cold temperatures in the caterpillar stage. During temperatures below approximately 50 degrees F, larvae cease to feed. As the temperature rises above this mark, feeding resumes. The life cycle is retarded during cooler temperatures. In contrast to this, DBM populations may increase dramatically at temperatures above approximately 80 degrees F. The life cycle may be as long as 50 days at low temperatures and as short as 15 to 20 days during high temperatures. There may be 10 or more generations during warm years.

Suppression of DBM populations with preventive treatments is the most efficient control method. Preventive treatments with biological compounds should be made on a five-day interval. A seven-day interval may be used if no worms are found, especially during cool winter weather. Cleanup sprays may be necessary periodically. Heavy rain showers may reduce populations dramatically. Monitor crops two to three times per week and make decisions on changes in control strategies.

Note: Transplant beds should be kept free of infestation.

Cabbage Looper

The cabbage looper, Trichoplusia ni, is the second most destructive pest to cabbage and leafy greens, and at times is the key pest in Georgia. Biological insecticides are moderately effective and, often, other insecticides are needed for adequate control.

The cabbage looper is most destructive in early summer and fall. The larvae are large worms (up to 1 1/2 inches) that eat away large holes in the leaves. Lar-vae are sluggish and hold on to the plants tenaciously when attempts are made to remove them. This is the only caterpillar pest that has only three pairs of fleshy prolegs near the rear. Except for the adult, the cabbage looper is like the DBM, spending its entire life cycle on the plant. The eggs are laid on the underside of the leaves and larvae hatch and feed on the underside, with the pupae attached to the underside in a protective cocoon. The pupae is green and two to three times as large as DBM pupae.

Controls should be initiated at the first signs of moth activity, whether this is eggs or young larvae. Monitoring the crop two or three times per week helps in making control decisions.

Cabbage Webworm

The cabbage webworm, Hellula rogatalis, is occasionally a serious pest of cabbage, collards and kale. When it occurs, growers are usually caught off guard. Because it has a habit of feeding in the bud area, producing moderate to heavy webbing growers have difficulty controlling it.

Mature larvae are about 3/4 inch long and have five dark stripes on a dirty gray body. The head capsule is black with a distinct, white V-shaped mark.

Control for the webworm should be initiated at the first signs of an infestation. Some of the same insecticides used against the cabbage looper give good control if coverage in the bud area is excellent.

Imported Cabbageworm

The imported cabbageworm, Pieris rapae, is rarely an economic pest on cabbage and leafy greens if controls for other worms are being applied. The adult is a common butterfly that lays eggs singly on the leaf surface. The larvae are green and have a velvety appearance. Larvae have a narrow, light yellow stripe down the back. Initiate controls when a buildup of larvae occurs.

Cross-Striped Cabbageworm

The cross-striped cabbageworm, Evergestis rimosalis, is occasionally a pest in the cooler, northern part of Georgia. It is usually not too difficult to control if the crop is being monitored and timely controls are initiated.

The larvae may be slightly longer than 3/4 inch and have black and white transverse stripes down the back. Below the transverse stripes on each side is a black and yellow stripe along the length of the body. Initiate controls when larvae are observed.

Beet Armyworm

The beet armyworm, Spodoptera exigua, may be a pest to fall plantings of cabbage, collard, kale, mustard and turnip. Heavy populations that have increased on other crops move to greens crops when food sources become scarce. Diseases during this period often suppress populations below an economic level, but occasionally the beet armyworm can devastate a crop. The beet armyworm is one of the most difficult caterpillars to control. It is naturally resistant to most commonly used insecticides. If it develops into very large populations, control might not be regained.

The moth lays masses of eggs on the undersides of leaves. The mass may have up to 150 eggs and is covered with scales off the moth's body, giving the mass a cottony appearance. The larvae are light green to dark olive green and sometimes has stripes of these colors down the back. Above the second pair of legs near the head end is a black spot. Larvae may be 1 1/4 inches long.

Initiate controls if egg masses or larvae are found on two to three percent of the plants. Applications should be made on a five-day interval for suppression of low populations. A three- to four-day spray interval may be necessary to bring moderate to heavy populations under control.

Corn Earworm

The corn earworm, Helicoverpa zea, formerly Heliothis zea, can be a pest of almost any crop, but creates the most serious threat to cabbage. The larvae tunnel into the buds of young plants and the heads of older plants. The larvae is common on many plants, and is easily recognized when extracted from the tips of ears of field corn.

Make treatments when small larvae are observed on four to five percent of the plants or if large larvae are found on two or more percent on the plants.

Cutworm

The granulate cutworm, Feltia subterranea, is the most common species in Georgia's cabbage and leafy greens production areas. Cutworms may survive the winter in the larval stage, so large larvae may be present at the time of planting, especially when planting is made into highly organic previous crop residue. Cutworms are recognizable by their greasy dingy gray color and C-shaped posture when at rest. Cutworms feed at night, causing damage to stems and foliage, and retreat into the soil during the day. Treatments for cutworms should be anticipated by inspecting the soil during land preparation so insecticides can be incorporated at planting.

Seedcorn Maggot

The seedcorn maggot, Delia platura, is a secondary pest that attacks many types of plants. The maggot is a general feeder that is attracted to decaying organic matter. When seedlings are placed under stress, they are most subject to attack by the seedcorn maggot.

This occurs most often during the cooler months of planting when transplants are developing slowly.

The immature stage is the maggot, which eventually becomes a small housefly-like adult. The maggot damages the plant by entering the roots and stem. Usually, the plant is weakened beyond recovery. Many plants can be killed.

The most effective control is to anticipate the conditions that create a favorable environment for maggot attacks and apply the preventive, soil-applied insecticides. Cabbage and collards are the most susceptible to attack.

Aphids

Several species of aphids attack cabbage and leafy greens. Aphids may be present in fields all year, but they do not always cause significant damage. Aphids are subject to control by several diseases and insect parasites. If broad spectrum pesticides are used sparingly during the early stages of plant development, aphids usually pose very little threat. However, under conditions that favor rapid development, aphid populations can "explode" to damaging levels. Cool, dry weather during the spring or fall is ideal for the development of high populations.

Cabbage Aphids

The cabbage aphid, Brevicoryne brassicae, is found throughout Georgia. Its appearance differs from other species, with a powdery, waxy covering over its body. Its body is grayish-green. This aphid feeds primarily on cabbage, collards and kale, and seldom feeds on mustard or turnips.

The cabbage aphid is difficult to control and should be monitored closely when it is discovered colonizing. Treatments should be made if populations spread beyond the small initial colonies.

Turnip Aphid

The turnip aphid, Lipaphis erysimi, resembles the cabbage aphid, but lacks a waxy covering and is pale green. The turnip aphid feeds mostly on turnip and mustard. It is difficult to control when conditions favor rapid development.

Green Peach Aphid

The green peach aphid, Myzus persicae, is the most common aphid in Georgia and feeds on many vegetable crops and row crops. The wingless and winged types are yellowish-green, green or pink. The winged forms are usually darker. The green peach aphid is most destructive to turnip, mustard, kale and collard but can cause problems in cabbage. Control may be difficult, but can be accomplished with thorough coverage of insecticide sprays. Insecticide controls on seedling stage greens should be avoided until parasites and diseases are given a chance to suppress the population.

Turnip Root Aphid

The turnip root aphid, Pemphigus populitransversus, feeds on cabbage, collard, kale, mustard and turnip. Infested plants may be yellow and stunted, but under good growing conditions late infestations often result in very little yield loss. However, turnip roots will be disfigured or discolored and even unmarketable. Pre-plant incorporation of soil insecticides is the best means of control. Usually this aphid develops higher populations on late fall or early spring plantings. It is difficult to predict, so apply preventive controls only if a history of problems exists.

Thrips

Several thrips species feed on cabbage and collards sparingly. Occasionally, damage may be noted. Thrips may be found aggregated in areas damaged by small worms. This behavior is suspected to favor the acquisition of moisture and other nutrients in the exudates of the worm-damaged tissue.

Because cabbage is susceptible to Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus (TSWV), thrips may become a more important pest in the future. Occasionally, thrips cause a mechanical, "buckskin- type" injury. Controls are not recommended unless heavy populations are observed.

Harlequin Bug

The harlequin bug, Murgantia histrionica, is rarely a pest of commercial plantings of kale, mustard or turnip. It is more likely to be a problem in cabbage and collard. The harlequin bug is a brightly marked shield-shaped bug that has piercing, sucking mouthparts. It feeds on the veins of leaves, causing the leaf to wilt. Their eggs are barrel-shaped and laid in clusters on the leaves. Eggs are white with two black bands around them. Initiate controls if one bug per 10 plants is found.

Stink Bugs

Several species of stink bugs attack leafy greens. One of the most common species is the southern green stink bug, Nezara viridula. Stink bugs commonly infest turnip and mustard more than cabbage and other leafy greens. Stink bugs pierce the plant cell and suck out plant sap. The most common problem with stink bug infestations is that they are a contaminant in processed greens. Control stink bugs when wilting is observed from feeding or when they are found above the accepted threshold for processing.

Chinch Bug

The chinch bug, Blissus leucopterus, may infest turnip and mustard crops, especially when they are planted near corn or small grains. Chinch bugs are small sucking bugs that prefer to feed on grass crops but may migrate to vegetables when these hosts become unsuitable. Even though the adults have wings, they do not fly. Chinch bugs are difficult to control, so scouting for early detection of chinch bugs migrating from nearby sources is important. Initiate controls if a large migrating population is detected.

False Chinch Bug

The false chinch bug, Nysius raphanus, is a fragile sucking bug that is primarily a pest on turnip and mustard. False chinch bugs may infest fields in large numbers. Damage is caused by their feeding on the veins on the undersides of the leaves. They inject enzymes during the feeding process, causing a green wilting of the leaf margins. This condition is variable and there is no information on how many bugs cause wilting. Therefore, decisions on control are arbitrary, but heavy infestations should not be left uncontrolled.

Sweetpotato Whitefly

The sweetpotato whitefly, Bemisia tabaci, is a sporadic pest of cabbage and leafy greens. The sweetpotato whitefly may become a problem in late plantings, but is rarely a problem in spring greens. The adult is smaller than a gnat and is bright white with a yellow head and thoracic region. It is moth-like in appearance and feeds on the undersides of leaves, where it also lays eggs. The larvae hatch and become sessile on the underside of the leaf. The adults fly rapidly from the plant when disturbed.

Heavy feeding can result in small yellow spots on the foliage of the tender leafy greens. When on cabbage or collards, the whitefly is more a contaminant than an injurious pest. Control for whiteflies is not recommended unless populations in the area are becoming excessively large or honeydew and/or sooty mold is developing on the foliage. Whitefly control is strictly a judgment decision without threshold guidelines.

Vegetable Weevil

The vegetable weevil, Listroderes costirostris, may be a pest of seedling cabbage and leafy greens, especially under the cool growing conditions of the early fall and spring plantings. Adults are about 1/4- to 3/8-inch long with a stout snout. They are brownish-gray with two nondescript whitish marks on the wing covers. The larvae are white legless grubs. The adult weevil and grub feed directly on the foliage and stems of greens. They can cause significant stand reductions on young plantings. If weevils or grubs are found feeding, apply treatments if more than five percent of the stand is being damaged.

Yellowmargined Leaf Beetle

The yellowmargined leaf beetle, Microtheca ochroloma, is a small beetle that infests turnips and mustard, especially at field margins. The beetle is black with dirty, yellowmargined wing covers. The larvae are black and alligator-shaped with three pairs of stocky legs. The larvae and adults feed all over the leaves, leaving them with a laced appearance. The pupae may be found in white, round, and loosely woven cocoons near the crown of the plants.

Initiate controls when larvae and adults are causing noticeable damage and are still present in the field.

Sprayers

Paul E. Sumner, Extension Engineer

Herbicides, insecticides, fungicides, some fertilizers and other materials are applied with sprayers. Although the cost of sprayers represents a small part of the total investment, their use has a great impact on the quality and quantity of crops produced. Figure 1 shows equipment necessary for a properly working sprayer. Each component is important for efficient and effective application.

Agitation

Most materials applied by a sprayer are a mixture or suspension in water or liquid fertilizer, so uniform application demands a uniform tank mix. Most boom sprayers have a tank agitator to maintain the desired uniform mix. The agitation (mixing) is produced by a hydraulic jet or mechanical apparatus.

Either of these agitators, when properly designed and operated, will adequately agitate most pesticides added to the tank. Wettable powders and flowables, must be continually agitated while the tank is filled and transported to the spray site. Do not allow pesticides to settle, especially wettable powders, which do not dissolve and are approximately 50 percent heavier than water.

Pumps

The pump is the heart of a sprayer; it must deliver adequate flow and pressure and handle the desired chemicals without rapid corrosion or wear. The ideal pump depends on the intended use; no pump is ideal for all purposes. Each pump has various advantages and disadvantages, such as cost, service, operating speeds, flowrate, pressure and wear. The pump of choice for spraying vegetable crops is the diaphragm type because it creates the necessary pressures and resists wear from the materials being applied.

Nozzles

The nozzle tip is a critical component of a sprayer. The nozzle regulates the flow rate, atomizes the mixture into droplets and disperses the droplets in a specific pattern.

Nozzle Tips

Nozzle size depends largely on the desired application rate. Nozzle tips provide a wide range of rates, depending on orifice size, pressure and ground speed, as well as nozzle spacing on boom sprayers. Manufacturers' catalogs list nozzle flow rates at various pressures and ground speeds. Once the rate of application and pressure are determined, select the proper nozzle size. A nozzle with a specific gallon-per-acre rate will apply that rate only under standard conditions of miles per hour speed and pounds per square inch pressure. The spray rate increases with higher pressure or slower ground speed and by spacing nozzles closer on the boom. Changing these variables in the opposite direction will decrease the spray rate. Increasing the pressure produces smaller droplets and increases the risk of drift. Conversely, larger droplets and less drift may be expected as the nozzle size increases.

Replacing Nozzle Tips

Worn nozzles increase application rates and change distribution patterns, so they provide poor pest control, residue problems and increased costs. Check the boom sprayer to determine whether each tip is delivering an identical volume of spray in a smooth pattern with no heavy streams or blank areas. Should a nozzle become clogged, blow the dirt out with compressed air or remove the dirt with a soft bristled brush such as a toothbrush. Never use a wire or nail, because the orifice can be easily damaged. Wear waterproof gloves when handling and cleaning nozzles to reduce pesticide exposure. Remember, improperly functioning or worn nozzles are costly.

Spraying Techniques

Herbicides and Nematicides (Non-Fumigant)

Herbicides and non-fumigant nematicides can be applied prior to bedding with a power-driven rotary tiller set to cut 1.5 to four inches deep at three to four mph or by double-discing with a disc harrow to cut four to six inches deep at five to seven mph. Use a flat fan nozzle tip and adjust height to achieve an overlap pattern of 40 to 50 percent.

Insecticides and Fungicides

To apply fungicides and insecticides, equip the boom with hollow cone nozzles operated at 150 to 250 psi. Greens and cabbage are hard to spray due to the nature of the crop and the necessity of completely covering the leaf area. To get complete coverage, apply 80 to 120 gallons of mixture per acre at tractor speeds of approximately three mph. Adjust swivel- type drop nozzles should be adjusted within three inches of the ground between the rows so spray will be applied outward and upward through the greens. Place a single nozzle over each row, approximately nine to 12 inches from the top of the plant (Figure 2).

This nozzle arrangement will wet the upper and lower leaf surfaces. This is essential for downy mildew and aphid control. One nozzle directly over the row is sufficient when greens are small or overlapping.

Calibration

Calibrate sprayers often. Conduct calibration every eight to 10 hours of operation to ensure proper application. A good calibration procedure to follow is explained in Calibration Method for Hydraulic Boom and Band Sprayers and Other Liquid Applicators, available from your county Extension agent.

Irrigation

Anthony W. Tyson, Extension Engineer

Even though cabbage and leafy greens are primarily cool-season crops, irrigation will significantly increase their yield and quality in most years.

These crops are shallow rooted, and even though their water requirements are less than those for most crops, they can use up the available moisture in the shallow root zone very quickly. The most serious yield reductions result when moisture deficits occur during late development and, in the case of cabbage, during head formation.

Sprinkler irrigation is the only method that has proven practical for irrigation of these crops in Georgia. Common types of systems include center pivot, linear move, travelling big-gun, permanent set and portable aluminum pipe with sprinklers. Each of these systems is satisfactory if used correctly. There are, however, significant differences in initial costs, fuel costs and labor requirements.

Any sprinkler system used on cabbage or greens should be capable of delivering at least 1 1/4 inches of water each week. In addition, the system should apply the water slowly enough to prevent run-off. With most soils, a rate less than two inches per hour safely prevents runoff.

Scheduling Irrigation

The water used by a crop and the water evaporated from the soil is said to undergo evapotranspiration (ET). ET rates for cabbage and greens rarely exceed 0.15 inch per day. Factors that affect ET are the stage of crop growth, temperature, relative humidity, solar radiation, wind velocity and plant spacing.

Plant seeded crops into moist soil and irrigate frequently with light applications until germination occurs. If possible, apply 0.25 inch every other day to ensure complete germination. The soil should not become waterlogged.

Plant transplants into moist soil and irrigate with 0.3 to 0.5 inch immediately. This helps to ensure good contact between the soil and roots.

Once a root system is established, maintain soil moisture to a depth of 12 inches. The sandier soils in south Georgia have an available water-holding capacity of about one inch per foot of soil depth. Clay soils will hold up to two inches per foot. No more than 50 percent of the available water should be depleted before irrigating. This means that net irrigation amounts should be between 0.5 and 1.0 inch per irrigation. The actual amount applied should be 10 to 20 percent higher to account for evaporation losses and wind drift. The irrigation frequency will depend on the daily ET rate. In general, during peak water-use periods, sandy soils need 0.6 inch twice a week, and clay soils need 1.2 inches once a week.

Irrigation can best be managed by monitoring the amount of moisture in the soil. Tensiometers or resistance blocks can be used to measure soil moisture. For best results on cabbage and greens, maintain soil tension below 30 centibars. For cabbage, it is especially important to maintain uniform moisture during head formation to prevent bursting. Maintain soil moisture until harvest.

Harvesting and Handling

William C. Hurst, Extension Food Scientist

Harvesting

Many leafy greens (including cabbage, collards, kale, mustard and turnips) are cut by hand and packed directly in the field for the fresh market. Necessary trimming to remove any yellowed, brownish or damaged leaves should be done as the plants are picked and before they are tied into bunches and placed into containers. In addition, cabbage may be cut by hand, loaded into a bulk container such as a field wagon, and hauled to a packing shed for trimming, grading and packaging. During cabbage harvest, cut stems so that they do not extend more than one-half inch beyond the point of attachment of the outmost leaves. Heads may be damaged by excessively long, protruding stems. Bunch collards according to uniform size. Coarse, tough stems of plants should not be packed. Harvest leaves of turnips, mustard and kale when tender by feel, and avoid those showing tough stems.

Ensuring a quality pack can be a problem for hand harvesters. Field labor must be adequately trained and supervised to harvest only optimum maturity and/or sized leaves or rooted plants to meet potential buyer's quality standards.

Field sanitation is very important to reduce the spread of disease among plants. Cutting tools are a primary source of disease carryover. Knives should be routinely sanitized to keep disease inoculum from building on their surfaces and infecting sound cabbage heads or leafy greens. Workers' knives should be collected at the end of a harvest day and placed in a bucket of sanitizer (use one ounce of household bleach per gallon of water). For better protection, place buckets of sanitizer at the end of selected rows in the field so workers can sanitize their knives at regular intervals to reduce disease build-up over the course of the production day.

Postharvest Handling/Cooling

When harvesting cabbage or other leafy greens, field crews should exercise care to minimize bruise damage and leaf punctures. Cabbage is sometimes considered a "hardware" item, because it is thrown into bulk containers in the field or at the packing shed. Outer leaves are broken and heads burst when subjected to impact damage. Leaves of leafy greens are crushed if they are overpacked into field boxes. Im-properly used cutting tools will puncture leaves. Cuts or breaks in the leaves or heads will cause excessive wilting and provide avenues for decay pathogens.

Cabbage and other greens wilt quickly when there is a delay in removing them from the sun. Leafy greens should be harvested during the coolest part of the day to minimize shrivelling and field heat accumulation. If delays occur during packing, shade greens from direct sunlight.

Leafy greens should be cleaned before marketing. Bunches of collards and leaves of mustard, turnip and kale tied in 1/2 dozen bundles are laid on a flatbed trailer and hauled from the field station. A straight line packing belt conveys bunches beneath spray washers where greens are cleaned to remove sand and dirt, and refreshened to improve their appearance. Workers place bundles coming off the end of the belt onto racks and into a storage cooler. Direct field packing of boxed leaves is also done without washing at the request of the buyer.

Quality maintenance is best achieved for leafy greens if they are precooled before shipping. Field workers should trim loose leaves from cabbage during harvest because these leaves interfere with cooling. Buyers prefer three to six wrapper leaves to remain. Packing line graders will typically remove any yellowed, insect damaged or disease damaged heads before boxing. Boxes should have structural integrity (use only new boxes) to prevent product crushing during stacking, loading and distribution.

Cabbage is best cooled by vacuum or forced air because rapid air movement is needed to remove heat from solid heads. However, most cabbage packed in Georgia is placed in a room cooler. Other leafy greens (collards, kale, mustard and turnips) should be rapidly cooled using one of the methods above. In addition, most buyers require icing for these greens to provide needed moisture for freshness and crispness. Following the field boxing of leaves, the greens may be taken to the shipping location where a shovel of ice is added to greens in each box. Washed bunches of greens are removed from cooling racks and bulk loaded into trucks by being laid in rows, with top icing for each row. Icing takes 2.2 pounds of ice for every four pounds of greens to maintain the temperature below 40 degrees F. All leafy greens, including cabbage, should be cooled to 32 degrees F before marketing.

Quality Grade Standards

Cabbage

U.S. No.1 and U.S. Commercial are the two U.S. grade standards provided. U.S. No.1 consists of heads of cabbage of one cultivar or similar varietal char-acteristics, is reasonably solid, and not withered, puffy, or burst, and is free from soft rot, seedstems and from damage caused by discoloration, freezing, disease, insects, or mechanical or other means. Each head shall be well-trimmed. U.S. Commercial consists of heads of cabbage that meet requirements for U.S. No.1 grade except for an increased tolerance for defects, and except that heads shall be reasonably firm rather than solid as for the U.S. No.1 standard. A minimum size or minimum and maximum sizes may be specified in connection with the grade as "U.S. No.1, one pound minimum," or "U.S. No.1, two to four pounds." In order to allow for variations incident to proper grading and handling, defect tolerances, based on product weight, are provided in Table 1.

Collard

U.S. standards for collard greens provide for one grade - U.S. No.1. This consists of greens of similar varietal characteristics, which are fresh, fairly tender, fairly clean, well-trimmed and of characteristic color for the variety or type. Also, greens shall be free from decay, damage caused by coarse stems and seedstems, discoloration, freezing, foreign material, disease, insects, or mechanical or other means. Tolerances for grading collard greens are based on product weight in a container (see Table 1 for defect percentages).

Kale

U.S. standards for kale provide two grades - U.S. No.1 and U.S. Commercial. Buyers customarily use U.S. No.1, which requires plants to be of one type, well-trimmed, not stunted, free of decay and of damage caused by yellow or discolored leaves, seedstems, wilting, bud burn, freezing, dirt, disease, insects, or mechanical or other means. Tolerances for grading kale are based on product weight in a container (see Table 1).

Mustard & Turnip

U.S. standards for mustard greens and turnip greens provide for one grade - U.S. No. 1. This consists of greens of similar varietal characteristics that are fresh, fairly tender, fairly clean and free of decay and of damage caused by seedstems, discoloration, freezing, foreign material, disease, insects, or mechanical or other means. In order to allow for variations incident to proper handling and grading, defect tolerances for each are provided (see Table 1).

Packaging

Cabbage is packed in 1.8 bushel (50 pound) waxed, corrugated cartons or large meshed bags in Georgia. Proper sizing and count per box are important for marketing. Buyers demand uniformly sized heads, 18 to 22 count, in cartons. Cartons bring a premium price and help protect the heads from damage during distribution. Larger heads, 10 to 14 count, are packed in meshed bags and bring a lower price.

Collards are sold in bunches of two or three plants. Collards are bulk loaded into trucks or packed into wirebound boxes. Depending on market demand, bunches are packed 12 to 24 bunches per box or sold by the dozen bunches. Collards are top iced for sale.

Kale leaves are stripped from the plant and tied into bunches for marketing. Usually, 12 to 16 leaves compose a bunch and bundled leaves are sold as 1/2 dozen bundles per box. Kale is iced before sale.

Mustard greens are marketed as bundled leaves. Freshness and lack of wilt are important marketing factors. Bundles of 12 to 16 leaves are packed into wirebound or waxed cartons (18 to 20 pounds, excluding ice) depending on market demand. Leaves are iced before sale.

Turnip greens are sold as rooted plants and leaves. If marketed as plants, they should be harvested when the roots reach 1 1/2 to two inches in diameter and bunched as two or three plants, similar to collards. Depending on market demand, turnips are packed into 25- or 50- pound cartons or by the dozen as bunches in wirebound crates. Turnip leaves are tied into bundles and sold, with 1/2 dozen bundles per box. Rooted plants and leaves are top iced during packaging.

Storage/Shipping

Maximum storage time for cabbage is three to six weeks if it has been properly precooled and held at 32 degrees F with a relative humidity of 90 to 95 percent. Cabbage is compatible for holding and shipment with fruits and vegetables that do not produce the ripening gas ethylene. Quality is damaged by exposure to trace amounts of ethylene, which causes yellowing and shedding of outer leaves. Do not store or ship cabbage with ripening tomatoes, cantaloupes or ethylene-producing fruits such as peaches.

Other leafy greens (collards, kale, mustard and turnips) require the same storage conditions (temperature - 32 degrees F; humidity - 95 percent), but have a shelf-life of only two weeks. This is due to their higher respiration rate and leafy nature, which causes them to lose moisture rapidly. In addition to cold storage, greens should be top iced to retain crispness. These greens are also ethylene-sensitive and should not be stored or shipped with ripening tomatoes, cantaloupes, or fruits such as peaches.

Table 1. U.S. grade standards based on allowable defect levels (Note: Some buyers expect higher quality than these limits.)
Commodity	Grade	Tolerances, by weight	Size Requirement	Trim Requirement
Cabbage	U.S. No. 1	10% total, including 2% soft decay	For off size: 15% total, but not more than 10% above or below size	For trimming: 10% may fail to meet required number of wrapper leaves.
	U.S. Commercial	25% total, including 10% serious damage and 2% soft decay
Kale	U.S. No. 1	10% total, including 1% wet decay	Size not a requirement of grade	Kale must be well trimmed
Collard, mustard, turnip	U.S. No. 1	10% total, including 5% serious damage and 2% decay	Size reported as "small, medium or large leaves"	Mustard and turnip greens have no trimming requirements. Collards must be well trimmed.

Production Costs

William O. Mizelle, Jr. and George O. Westberry, Extension Economists

Cabbage and greens growers can use enterprise budgets to estimate production and break-even costs. Budgets include cost estimates for those inputs necessary to achieve the specified yields over a period of years. Production practices vary among growers, so each grower should adapt budget estimates to reflect the individual situation. Detailed printed and computerized budgets are available from your county Extension agent.

Types of Costs

The total cost of producing any crop includes vari-able and fixed costs. The variable (operating) costs vary with the cultural practices used. Common variable costs include seed, fertilizer, chemicals, fuel and labor. Fixed costs include items such as equipment ownership (depreciation, interest, insurance and taxes), management and general overhead costs. Most of these costs are incurred even if little production takes place.

Variable costs are further broken down into preharvest and harvest operations in the budgets. This provides an opportunity to analyze the costs at different stages of the production process.

Land cost can be a variable or a fixed cost. Even if you own the land, there is cost involved. Land is a fixed cost in the same budget. If land is double-cropped, charge each enterprise half the annual cost.

A fixed cost per hour of use shows ownership costs for tractors and equipment (depreciation, interest, taxes, insurance and shelter). Overhead and management are 15 percent of all pre-harvest variable expenses. This figure pays for management and farm costs that cannot be allocated to any one specific enterprise. Overhead items include utilities, farm shop and equipment, pick-up trucks and fees.

Cost per Unit of Production

The cost categories (Tables 2 and 3) are broken down by cost per unit at the bottom of the budget. The pre-harvest variable costs and the fixed costs decline with increases in yields.

Costs per carton of cabbage from the 1990 Extension budget:

Pre-harvest cost	$1.28
Harvesting & marketing cost	$2.22
Fixed cost	$0.52
Total Cost	$4.03

Costs per carton of leafy greens from the 1990 Extension budget:

Pre-harvest cost	$1.08
Harvesting & marketing cost	$2.78
Fixed cost	$0.47
Total Cost	$4.33

For current cost estimates, see the most recent Extension vegetable budgets, available from your county Extension agent.

Budget Uses

In addition to estimating the total costs and break-even costs for producing cabbage and greens, there are other uses for the budgets.

Estimates of the cash costs (out-of-pocket expenses) provide information on how much money must be borrowed. The cash cost estimates are helpful in preparing cash flow statements.

When growers use share leases, the cost estimates by item can be used to more accurately determine a fair share arrangement by the landlord and tenant.

Risk Rated Net Returns

Because there is variation in yields and prices from year to year, an attempt is made to estimate the "riskiness" of producing cabbage and greens. The Extension Agricultural Economics Department uses five yields and prices to calculate risk. The median values are those prices and yields a particular grower would anticipate exceeding half the time (half the time, he would anticipate not reaching these prices and yields). Optimistic values are those prices and yields a grower would expect to reach or exceed one-year-in-six. The pessimistic values are poor prices and yields that would be expected one-year-in-six. The best and worst values are those extreme levels that would occur "once in a lifetime" (one-in-48).

The risk-rated section for cabbage (Table 4) shows there is a 57 percent chance of covering all costs. Over a period of years, this hypothetical grower would anti-cipate an average or expected return of $152 per acre. There is more "upside" potential in prices, so he would be expected to net $152 or more in fewer than half the years (48 percent of the time). One year-out-of-six he would expect: to make more than $917 per acre; to lose more than $509 per acre.

The risk rated section (Table 5) for leafy greens shows there is a 57 percent chance of covering all costs. Over a period of years, this hypothetical grower would anticipate an average or expected returns of $58 per acre. He would be expected to net $58 or more about half the time and net $58 or less half the time. One year-out-of-six he would expect: to make more than $348 per acre; to lose more than $269 per acre.

Table 2. Estimated cabbage yields, prices and costs
	Best	Opt	Median	Pess	Worst
Yield (cartons	600	500	400	200	0
Price per carton	10.00	6.00	4.50	3.00	2.50

Item	Unit	Quant.	Price	$Amt./ac
Variable Costs
Plants	1000	16.00	9.25	148.00
Lime, applied	Ton	.50	24.00	12.00
Fertilizer	Cwt	12.00	7.10	85.20
Sidedressing	Acre	1.00	16.35	16.35
Insecticide	Appl.	7.00	3.70	25.90
Fungicide	Appl.	10.00	2.40	24.00
Herbicide	Acre	1.00	5.00	5.00
Machinery	Hr.	6.00	10.33	61.98
Labor	Hr.	10.00	5.00	50.00
Irrigation	Appl.	3.00	4.50	13.50
Interest on oper. cap.	$	441.93	.13	28.73
Pre-Harvest Variable Costs				470.66
*Harvest and Marketing Costs*
Labor	Hrs.	50	3.50	175.00
Container	Ctn.	400	1.30	520.00
Hauling & marketing	Ctn.	400	.30	120.00
Total Harvest and Marketing				815.00
Total Variable Costs				1,285.66
*Fixed Cost*
Machinery	Hr.	6.00	7.67	46.02
Irrigation	Acre	1.00	35.00	35.00
Land	Acre	1.00	40.00	40.00
Overhead & management	$	470.66	.15	70.60
Total Fixed Costs				191.62
Total Budgeted cost per acre				1,477.27
*Costs per Carton*
Pre-harvest variable cost per carton				1.28
Harvest & marketing cost per carton				2.22
Fixed Cost per Carton				.52
Total Budgeted cost per carton				4.03

Table 3. Estimated leafy greens yields, prices and costs
	Best	Opt	Median	Pess	Worst
Yield (cartons)	600	475	350	200	0
Price per carton	6.00	5.25	4.50	4.00	3.50

Item	Unit	Quant.	Price	$Amt./ac
Variable Costs
Seed	Lbs.	3.50	14.00	49.00
Lime, applied	Ton	.50	23.00	11.50
Nitrogen	Lbs.	180.00	.20	36.00
Phosphorus	Lbs.	200.00	.22	44.00
Potassium	Lbs.	200.00	.14	28.00
Sulfur	Lbs.	10.00	.20	2.00
Boron	Lbs.	1.00	2.80	2.80
Herbicide	Acre	1.00	50.00	50.00
Fungicide	Acre	1.00	40.00	40.00
Insecticide	Acre	1.00	23.00	23.00
Machinery	Hr.	2.00	11.50	23.00
Labor	Hr.	4.00	4.00	16.00
Irrigation	Inch	10.00	3.00	30.00
Interest on oper.cap.	$	355.30	.12	10.66
Pre-Harvest Variable Costs				365.96
Harvest and Marketing Costs
Labor	Ctn.	350	1.00	350.00
Container	Ctn.	350	1.30	455.00
Marketing	Ctn.	350	.40	140.00
Total Harvest and Marketing			2.70	945.00
Total Variable Costs				1,310.96
Fixed Cost
Machinery	Hr.	5.00	8.00	40.00
Irrigation	Acre	1.00	35.00	35.00
Land	Acre	1.00	30.00	30.00
Overhead & management	$	365.96	.15	54.98
Total Fixed Costs				159.89
Total Budgeted Cost per Acre				1,470.85
Costs per Carton
Pre-harvest variable cost per carton				1.08
Harvest & marketing cost per carton				2.78
Fixed cost per carton				.47
Total Budgeted cost per carton				4.33

Table 4. Risk-Rated Cabbage Returns over Total Costs
Net return levels (top row); the chances of obtaining this level or more (middle row); the chances of obtaining this level or less (bottom row).
	Optimistic			Expected	Pessimistic
Returns ($)	1,299	917	535	152	-178	-509	-840
Chances	7%	16%	29%	48%
Chances				52%	33%	16%	6%
Chances for Profit = 57%			Base Budgeted Net Returns /1 = 323
1/ Base budgeted net returns are the returns that would be estimated if yields and prices were estimated to be the same each year.

Table 5. Risk-Rated Leafy Greens Returns over Total Costs
Net return levels (top row); the chances of obtaining this level or more (middle row); the chances of obtaining this level or less (bottom row).
	Optimistic			Expected	Pessimistic
Returns ($)	547	384	221	58	-106	-269	-433
Chances	7%	16%	31%	50%
Chances				50%	31%	16%	7%
Chances for Profit = 57%			Base Budgeted Net Returns = 104

Marketing

William O. Mizelle, Jr., Extension Economist

Marketing cabbage, leafy greens or any other vegetable is more than just selling. Marketing also values production, distribution and pricing. Successful marketing must be responsive to the consumer's desire for quality, freshness and "reasonable" prices.

Production

Because production data for most vegetables are not available, other types of data are used for production estimates. USDA collects market arrival data for "fresh" fruits and vegetables in the major markets in the United States. During the late 1980s, these data show that 31 states market cabbage at some time during the year. The top 10 producing states, plus Canada, account for nearly 90 percent of the annual shipments to the major U.S. markets. California is the leader, followed by Texas, Florida and New York. Georgia is in the second-level group with Wisconsin and North Carolina. Georgia ranked sixth in shipments (Table 6).

The nation's monthly volume of cabbage is fairly consistent, but peaks in March. Georgia has only four percent of the annual volume but has over ten percent of the market during its biggest months -- May and June. Florida and Texas are the primary competitors in May, and North Carolina is the primary competitor in June.

Twenty-nine states market greens some time during the year. However, five states account for over three-fourths of the annual volume shipped to the nation's 23 major markets (Table 7). California and Georgia are the leading greens-producing states. Arizona, New Jersey and Texas follow in annual volume.

Although greens are available every month, produc-tion peaks nationally from November through February. Georgia's volume peaks from March through May. Georgia accounts for 22 percent of the annual volume but has 40 percent of the market in April.

Distribution

The location of the population and their tastes and preferences determine the demand for any product. For most vegetables, the top three markets are the largest cities -- New York, Los Angeles and Chicago.

The top three cabbage markets are Los Angeles, Chicago and Boston (Table 8). Atlanta is by far Georgia's top market, receiving nearly 53 percent of Georgia's shipments to the 23 major markets. Nearly two-thirds of Georgia's shipments go to southern markets. The Southern markets receive less than 20 percent of all shipments.

The top three greens markets in the United States are Los Angeles, Atlanta and Boston (Table 9). The top markets for Georgia's greens are Atlanta, Cincinnati and Boston. Cincinnati is a major distribution center for greens and receives nearly the same volume of greens as Chicago. (The Cincinnati metropolitan area is the twenty-third largest and Chicago is third). Nationally, greens are distributed fairly evenly (24 to 26 percent) in the four major geographical areas of the country. However, data for greens are not separated by type of greens, so one area may be consuming a higher proportion of one type when compared to other areas. Southern cities receive more than 40 percent of Georgia's greens.

Pricing

Supply and demand determine the general price level. The competing states' production determines the supply. Consumers' willingness to buy different quantities at different prices determines the demand.

Consumption data are not reported for cabbage and greens. However, arrival data for the past decade shows a down trend for cabbage and an up trend for greens. Cabbage arrivals for 1988-89 were down 18 percent from the 1980-81 period. For this same period, greens arrivals were up 19 percent.

Cabbage and greens prices vary greatly within a season and between years. Most of the price variation within a season is caused by weather effects on production. Price variations between years are caused by changes in acreage and weather. Very little price variation is caused by demand changes, which are slight from year-to-year. As expected, prices tend to move in the opposite direction to volume. During the 1990's, May prices for Georgia cabbage ranged from $3.00 to $5.50, except for 1982 and 1989.

Greens prices have been more stable, ranging from $4.00 to $5.00 per carton for eight of the ten years of the 1980s. One year prices were below $4.00 and one year they were slighty more than $5.00. (For recent prices, see Vegetable Economics - A Planning Guide, available from your county Extension agent.)

Summary

Nationally, annual cabbage supplies have declined slightly during the 1980s. Average prices for most of the decade were below $5.50. Cabbage appears to be profitable for some growers, especially when a competing area experiences adverse weather. Greens are experiencing a more favorable marketing environment. Production appears to be increasing while prices have been fairly stable.

Cabbage and greens growers will have to continue to adjust to changing market conditions. For these highly competitive commodities, the better marketeers will be the ones most likely to survive.

Table 6. Average monthly cabbage arrivals based on 23 U.S. cities, in millions of pounds
State*	Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	June	July	Aug	Sept	Oct	Nov	Dec	Total
California	13.28	11.30	13.96	11.48	11.54	11.66	10.86	9.92	9.76	10.42	10.18	11.52	135.88
Texas	14.50	13.22	19.40	12.84	9.78	2.42	1.10	.64	.82	1.76	4.96	10.12	91.56
Florida	9.96	9.64	13.78	14.20	12.90	3.02				.02	.50	5.34	69.36
New York	4.18	3.42	4.76	3.12	1.46	1.00	2.00	3.74	4.32	4.90	4.52	4.26	41.68
Wisconsin	.80	.68	.84	.58	.18	.06	1.84	3.78	4.36	3.86	1.98	1.42	20.92
North Carolina	.10				.96	9.22	3.08	1.22	1.20	1.00	2.16	1.58	20.52
Georgia	.78	.04	.04	.44	5.78	4.92	1.72	1.10	.98	.84	1.60	2.06	20.30
New Jersey					.02	3.46	4.64	2.18	2.06	2.34	1.50	.40	16.60
Canada	2.62	1.40	1.04	.40	.14	.14	1.42	1.78	2.18	1.98	1.60	1.58	16.28
Penn						.06	1.42	2.94	3.76	3.36	2.24	.54	14.32
Illinois						.74	1.46	1.32	1.56	1.60	.60	.26	7.54
Subtotal	46.22	39.70	53.82	43.06	42.76	36.70	29.54	28.62	31.00	32.08	31.84	39.08	454.96
Total U.S.	46.22	40.14	54.68	43.58	43.96	42.88	40.08	38.68	40.18	41.44	37.44	40.54	509.82
Subtotal/ Total	100%	99%	98%	99%	97%	86%	74%	74%	77%	77%	85%	96%	89%
Georgia/ Total	2%	0%	0%	1%	13%	11%	4%	3%	2%	2%	4%	5%	4%
* Plus Canada
Source: Fresh Fruit and Vegetable Arrivals, USDA-AMS

Table 7. Average monthly greens arrival based on 23 U.S. cities, in millions of pounds
State	Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	June	July	Aug	Sept	Oct	Nov	Dec	Total
California	4.60	4.40	4.80	4.28	3.92	3.38	3.30	3.30	3.44	3.78	4.26	4.72	48
Georgia	3.88	2.76	4.30	5.90	4.66	1.52	.86	.90	1.16	1.28	2.16	4.84	34
Arizona	2.52	2.76	3.14	1.80	.84	.12	.04		.02	.36	1.34	2.58	16
New Jersey			.06	.54	1.42	2.10	1.20	1.10	1.24	1.68	1.62	.36	11
Texas	2.14	2.30	2.34	1.02	.58	.14	.02	.04	.10	.22	.64	1.36	11
Subtotal	13.14	12.22	14.64	13.54	11.42	7.26	5.42	5.34	5.96	7.32	10.02	13.86	120
Total U.S.	14.30	13.72	16.56	14.66	13.34	10.94	10.08	10.76	11.26	11.94	13.26	15.78	157
Subtotal/Total	92%	89%	88%	92%	86%	66%	54%	50%	53%	61%	76%	88%	77%
Georgia/Total	27%	20%	26%	40%	35%	14%	9%	8%	10%	11%	16%	31%	22%
Source: Fresh Fruit and Vegetable Arrivals, USDA-AMS

Table 8. Average cabbage arrivals in major U.S. cities
	From Georgia		From U.S.
	Million lbs.	% of Total	Million lbs.	% of Total
Atlanta	12.73	52.8%	40.20	7.8%
Baltimore-Washington	1.93	8.0%	35.93	7.0%
Columbia	.23	1.0%	10.53	2.0%
Dallas	.07	.3%	25.67	5.0%
Miami	.50	2.1%	6.73	1.3%
New Orleans	.10	.4%	10.47	2.0%
South	15.57	64.6%	129.53	25.3%
Boston	1.67	6.9%	41.83	8.1%
Buffalo	.17	.7%	8.63	1.7%
New York-Newark	1.27	5.2%	35.33	6.9%
Philadelphia	.97	4.0%	25.57	5.3%
Pittsburgh	.63	2.6%	19.27	3.7%
Northeast	4.71	19.4%	132.63	25.7%
Chicago	1.30	5.4%	43.40	8.4%
Cincinnati	1.53	6.4%	27.93	5.4%
Denver			7.97	1.5%
Detroit	.57	2.3%	11.37	2.2%
St. Louis	.47	1.9%	17.80	3.5%
Midwest	3.87	16.0%	108.47	21.0%
Los Angeles			87.73	17.0%
San Francisco			36.23	7.0%
Seattle-Tacoma			17.70	3.4%
West			141.67	27.5%
Total	24.13	100%	512.29	100%
Source: Fresh Fruit and Vegetable Arrivals, USDA-AMS

Table 9. Average greens arrivals in major U.S. cities
	From Georgia		From U.S.
	Million lbs.	% of Total	Million lbs.	% of Total
Atlanta	12.53	32.4%	17.10	10.6%
Baltimore-Washington	2.90	7.5%	9.13	5.6%
Columbia			2.87	1.8%
Dallas	.27	.7%	8.03	5.0%
Miami			1.13	.7%
New Orleans			1.83	1.1%
South	15.70	40.5%	40.10	24.8%
Boston	5.07	13.1%	15.03	9.3%
Buffalo	.07	.2%	1.17	.7%
New York-Newark	3.57	9.2%	14.77	9.1%
Philadelphia	2.17	5.6%	8.43	5.2%
Pittsburgh			.43	.3%
Northeast	10.87	28.1%	39.83	24.6%
Chicago	1.73	4.5%	14.07	8.7%
Cincinnati	9.90	25.6%	13.87	8.6%
Denver			1.67	1.0%
Detroit	.17	.4%	9.23	5.7%
St. Louis	.37	.9%	3.80	2.3%
Midwest	12.17	31.4%	42.63	26.3%
Los Angeles			25.83	15.9%
San Francisco			8.90	5.5%
Seattle-Tacoma			4.67	2.9%
West			39.40	24.3%
Total	38.73	100%	161.97	100%
Source: Fresh Fruit and Vegetable Arrivals, USDA-AMS

Bulletin 1067/November, 1991

The University of Georgia and Ft. Valley State College, the U.S. Department of Agriculture and counties of the state cooperating. The Cooperative Extension Service offers educational programs, assistance and materials to all people without regard to race, color, national origin, age, sex or disability.

An Equal Opportunity Employer/Affirmative Action Organization Committed to a Diverse Work Force

Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, The University of Georgia College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences and the U.S. Department of Agriculture cooperating.

Gale A. Buchanan, Dean and Director

Back to Georgia Extension publications page.

Leafy Greens and Cabbage Production

Contents

Turnip

Mustard

Collard

Kale

Cabbage

Cercospora Leafspot

Cercosporella Leafspot

Cabbage Aphids

Turnip Aphid

Green Peach Aphid

Turnip Root Aphid

Nozzle Tips

Replacing Nozzle Tips

Herbicides and Nematicides (Non-Fumigant)

Insecticides and Fungicides

Calibration

Cabbage

Collard

Kale

Mustard & Turnip

1/ Base budgeted net returns are the returns that would be estimated if yields and prices were estimated to be the same each year.