Cooperative Extension Service
The University of Georgia College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences
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Raising Dairy Herd Replacements

Feeding & Management of the Pre-Partum Cow and Newborn Calf
Management of the Newborn
Management of the Nursing Calf
Management of the Weaned Calf
Management of the Breeding Age Heifer
Management of the Bred Heifer
Management of the Veal Calf
Budgets
Rations
References

The philosophy of heifer management should be to raise the best quality animals possible. These animals represent your future as a dairyman. Successful heifer management will allow the dairyman to make many more decisions. Two year-olds can make up 30-40 percent of your herd. Ideally the dairyman should be raising about 48% of the herd every year. This means the dairyman can choose the heifers to keep. With sire selection, these heifers should have greater genetic potential than their dams. And through selection, their offspring should be better.

Goals in the heifer raising program should include death loss as low as possible. For many herds, 2-3 percent death loss is accomplished over long periods of time. The more animals raised, the more selective you can be with the heifers you keep and make money selling the extra heifers. Calving should occur at 24 months. For every month over 24 months of age at calving, 4.5% more heifers are needed in the replacement herd. This means added expense as daily cost are $1.00 to $1.50/day/heifer. Older heifers do not produce more milk. (Figure 1)

Figure 1. Actual Milk Production of Holstein Heifers - PA. DHIA 1989

The heifer program is the future of your dairy herd.

Feeding and Management of the Pre-Partum Cow and Newborn Calf

The dry period is an important time in the life of the cow prior to giving birth and initiating another lactation. The dry period should be a minimum of six weeks and a maximum of ten weeks with 50-70 days being optimum. Data generated at the Dairy Records Processing Center shown in Table 1 show the effects of too short or too long dry periods.

The dry period is a time that allows certain metabolic, physiological and physical conditions to occur that are extremely important to the cow during the birthing process and upon initiation of lactation. Some of these are to --

• restore damaged rumen tissue.
• allow for involution of the udder and elimination of mastitic organisms with appropriate antibiotic treatment.
• properly condition the cow to maximize milk production in early lactation (body condition score 3.5-4.0).
• feed specialized diets to prevent certain metabolic disorders such as milk fever, calving problems, retained placenta and ketosis.
• prepare the cow to achieve high dry matter intake in early post partum period.
• optimize conditions to allow for the birth of a normal size healthy calf.

Preparing the Colostrum

Working with a local veterinarian and knowing which diseases are common to your herd is the first place to start to prepare the colostrum. This is done by carrying out a vaccination program in the adult cow herd so that antibodies to prevent disease are present in the colostrum.

Generally in Georgia most veterinarians will recommend vaccination for leptospirosis, infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR), bovine viral diarrhea (BVD), parainfluenza-3 (PI-3), syncytial virus, the clostridial diseases, Escherichia coli and haemophilus somnus. Again, a local veterinarian, by doing routine blood testing and looking at titers, can best advise the dairyman on which diseases are necessary to vaccinate against to protect the adult herd as well as newborn calves.

A detailed feeding and management program for dry cows is presented in Georgia Extension Service Leaflet 325, Managing the Dry Dairy Cow.

Nutrition

Dry cows must be separated from the milking herd in order to be fed properly. At least two nutritional or feeding groups are necessary. Cows in the early dry period (15 to 60 days pre-calving) require low protein, low energy and low mineral diets. Appendix Table 1 gives the recommended nutrient contents of dry cow diets. Cows that are 14-21 days pre-partum require slightly higher levels of protein and energy and should be injected with vitamin E and selenium or have a selenium bolus administered at the beginning of the dry period.

High roughage diets consisting of grass hay and not more than 30 pounds of silage per cow per day work best. Grain mixes should be formulated using forage test data to properly match the grain mix with the forages to be sure adequate amounts of calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, potassium, zinc, sulphur, and cooper are fed. Selenium and Vitamin E can also be added to the grain mix. Recent data suggest that feeding special acidic diets 2-3 weeks prior to calving may reduce milk fever and associated metabolic disorders. This may be accomplished by feeding 4 ounces of ammonium chloride and 4 ounces of magnesium sulfate along with palatable carriers such as dried molasses and corn.

Care at Calving

A few days before the expected calving date the cow should be placed in a clean well bedded box stall, if available, or preferably in a clean grassy paddock near the barn or house where she may be easily observed and assisted day or night. It's not uncommon for Holstein cows and first calving Holstein heifers to incur a 10-15 percent incidence of difficult births. Many of these may require only slight assistance but there needs to be provisions made so that assistance can quickly or easily given in extremely difficult situations. Ideally the owner or herdsman should be present for every birth. Sanitation during the birth process is extremely important. Remember, the calf is born without antibodies so any exposure to harmful bacteria and disease organisms during the birth process may prove to be fatal to the newborn calf. If it is necessary to examine the cow, she should be washed with clean, warm soapy water and your hands and arms should likewise be cleaned. Always use a sterile, clean plastic sleeve when examining the cow or providing assistance to the calf at birth.

Management of the Newborn

If an attendant is present at birth, he or she should clean the nostrils of any mucus or placental membranes and be sure the calf is breathing. If the calf is not breathing the interior part of the nostril may be tickled with a small clean object or your finger by inserting it about 2 inches up its nostril. If this does not work more drastic measures must be taken. Cold water sprinkled onto the calf's body, massaging the chest cavity or in some cases resorting to the use of a respirator may be necessary to promote breathing. In cold weather the calf should be dried to prevent chilling and reduce the risk of pneumonia. The naval cord should be clipped and tied about two inches below the naval to prevent bacteria from entering. Household string sterilized or special clip that may be obtained from your veterinarian may be used. Immediately after tying the naval dip it thoroughly disinfecting the umbilical cord with 7 percent tincture of iodine. Don't worry about over doing this job. Soak it good. Be sure to use 7 percent tincture of iodine. Anything less is too weak to be effective. If the calf is not dry, you can now let the cow dry the calf.

Before nursing (preferably the cow will be milked and colostrum is fed with a nipple bottle or esophageal feeding tube) the udder should be washed sanitized to prevent the calf from ingesting harmful bacteria or disease organisms. If milked, at least one gallon of colostrum should be obtained with two quarts fed immediately and two quarts 12 hours later. Colostrum (the first milk) is the highest in antibiodies (immuno globulins). Table 2 obtained from Minnesota shows the typical composition of colostrum, transitional milk and whole milk.

After 24 hours, colostrum feeding may be continued, but its importance is greatly diminished because the cells of the gastrointestinal tract of the calf close and prevent direct passage of these large molecular weight immunoglobulins from the gastro intestinal tract to the blood stream.

Management of Nursing Calf

After calves are 3-5 days old, if they are healthy, they will begin to be more alert and aware of what is going on around them. They will be more vigorous eaters and require less focused attention. However, the alert herdsman must continue to watch each calf closely for scours and signs of respiratory infections as the young calf is still very susceptible to critical illness. Any signs of illness should be attended to at that moment. A delay of 8-10 hours could prove to be fatal for the newborn calf. Calves at this stage may be fed whole milk, surplus colostrum or a good milk replacer. Also, milk from antibiotic treated cows may be used however, many experts recommend that milk from serious cases of mastitis not be fed to calves.

Table 3 lists protein and fat sources that are in the best, acceptable and inferior milk replacers. Note that the best replacers contain only milk based protein sources and fat of animal origin. Milk replacers should contain at least 20 percent crude protein and 10 percent fat. If the replacer contains plant proteins then the protein content should be higher than 20 percent. Likewise, animal fats are superior to vegetable fats, however, hydrogenated vegetable fats are satisfactory.

Carbohydrate sources are very important. Lactose (milk sugar) is the best source of carbohydrate with glucose and dextrose (corn sugar) being acceptable substitutes. Starch and sucrose (table sugar) are poorly digested by calves and may contribute to scouring in calves. Young calves are unable to digest fiber. Fiber analysis in milk replacer can be used as a guide to determine what ingredients may be in the replacer. Milk replacers containing greater than 0.25 percent crude fiber may contain plant sources of protein or carbohydrate.

Table 4 gives the guidelines for milk replacers from four days of age to weaning. This would allow large dairies or custom operators to effect feed cost savings by changing to a less expensive milk replacer that contains plant protein sources as calves get older and are able to digest plant proteins.

Calves should be introduced to grain, hay and water no later than one week of age. Fresh grain, water, and hay should be fed daily, and feed pails emptied and cleaned daily. Day old feed becomes stale and thus discourages consumption of adequate feed intake. Calves may start ruminating 7-14 days after birth and at the end of two weeks may be consuming two pounds of grain.

The main goal is to keep calves healthy and to switch them from expensive milk or replacer as soon as possible and yet provide proper nutrition. An example of a good calf starter ration is shown in Table 5.

Hay should be good quality grass or a mixture of grass and legume hay. Silage should not be fed to calves until six months old. Because of the high moisture content, calves less than four months old can't eat enough silage to maintain satisfactory growth. Silage should not constitute more than 1/3 of their dry matter until replacements reach one year of age.

Figure 2 illustrates the states of growth and development of the digestive system of the calf. The growth and development of the digestive system of the calf is gradual and may be influenced by the type of feed given to the calves. The digestive tract assumes its proper size in relationship to body size between four and six months of age and undergoes no further development throughout the life of the cow. This is why feeding during the first six months of life is extremely important.

Figure 2. Stages of Growth and Development of the Digestive System of the Calf.

Housing

During the past 10 years calf hutches have grown in popularity among dairy farmers as the preferred housing for nursing age replacements. This is primarily due to the much higher livability and better overall health of calves raised in hutches. Disadvantages include high labor costs, exposure to the weather by the person doing the feeding and the necessity for moving the hutches on a regular basis for sanitation purposes. Properly constructed, well ventilated calf barns with elevated pens are used successfully by many Georgia dairy farmers. However, it appears that outbreaks in calf barns have a longer and more serious impact on the success of the replacement operation than well managed hutches.

Health

The early feeding of an adequate amount (2 quarts soon after birth plus 2 quarts 12 hours later) of high quality colostrum is the number one factor to consider in maintaining healthy young calves. Secondly, sanitation, just as with newborn humans, is extremely important. Sanitation during birth and during the next few weeks of life is extremely important. Nursing calves should be kept dry and in a draft free place. Calves housed in hutches that are kept dry and fed properly do well even in the coldest weather.

Good sanitation includes keeping bottles, buckets and feeding vessels clean. Any vessel that has contained milk must be washed in warm soapy water after each use. Hutches should be moved regularily or cleaned frequently to prevent unsanitary conditions from developing due to manure and urine accumulation. During hot, wet weather hutches may have to be moved or cleaned more frequently to prevent soiled bedding from serving as a place for fly and maggot breeding and growth.

Disease prevention by vaccination can play an important role maintaining healthy calves in early life. In problem herds, your local veterinarian should be consulted and used to establish your specific program. Use Table 6 as a guide to determine the appropriate age to conduct certain practices that influence the health of the replacement heifer.

Management of the Weaned Calf

Generally calves do better and grow faster when handled in small groups of 10-15 calves of similar age and weight. It is probably best to segregate calves by weight rather than age because of calf that had been sick may be undersized for its age. The National Research Council in 1989 included allowances for calves by weight categories for both large and small breeds. Table 7 is adapted from that publication to provide some guidelines for feeding various size replacements.

Basically, requirements for energy and protein increases as the animal gets larger. However, after the animal matures, protein and energy requirements for maintenance are considerably less than for growth. Small breeds are basically mature at 1000 pounds and the requirements for large breeds up to 1200 pounds are only slightly higher. If the dairymen follows these guidelines the small breeds should calve at two years of age and weigh approximately 900 pounds and the large breeds 1200-1300 pounds.

Replacement care during the post weaning phase is commonly the most neglected area of management on many dairy farms. Young weaned calves frequently will be placed in small pens that are poorly ventilated and infrequently cleaned and sometimes are a real death trap. In situations like this the manager may be successful in keeping calves alive but often calves may receive permanent lung damage due to pneumonia and other respiratory diseases that are difficult to control. Also, as calves get older, they may get moved to a field or pasture some distance from the house or diary and calves may not be seen but two or three times a week and may not receive proper nutrition.

Appendix Tables 2 and 3 contain growth charts whereby the growth rate may be monitored by using heart girth and height at withers measurements. It is important to monitor height at the withers rather than just looking at weight alone because underfeeding of protein may result in heifers gaining weight as fat rather than making adequate skeletal growth. Heifers that are underfed protein for a long period of time may become permanently stunted and not reach their normal mature size. This can result in less lifetime milk because the amount of feed a cow consumes is directly proportional to her body size. You can use a tape to estimate the weight of a random sample of the heifers in a group and at the same time measure their height at the withers. After this is done these tables can be used to plot their weight and height at withers to see if they are making adequate weight gains as well as skeletal growth.

Health

Assuming that all has gone well with the birthing process, the replacement heifer was fed an adequate amount of high quality colostrum and kept in a clean, dry hutch, calves should be ready to wean by six weeks old. They should be consuming 1.5-2 pounds of a good calf starter and one pounds of good quality grass or legume hay. They should have recovered from dehorning and removal of extra teats and be ready to be placed in small groups of 10-15 calves.

Special attention must be given to post weaned calves to be sure that they remain free of internal and external parasites including coccidia. Anthelminics (de-wormers) and coccidiostatic agents may be fed daily mixed in the feed or administered orally or by injection on a regular basis. Also, some of the growth promotants (ionophores) have anticoccidial properties. Some of these can be fed to calves prior to wean-ing. If growth promotants (monensin and lasalocid) are used and replacements are confined to small areas, special attention should be given to replacements to prevent them from getting too fat. These growth promotants may improve rate of gain or feed efficiency by as much as 10 percent. Normally, under Georgia conditions, replacement rations must be formulated to achieve 1.7 pounds per day of gain to get acceptable growth. However, in some cases this will provide too many nutrients and the cost can be reduced by feeding for 1.5 pounds per day of gain. Remember that table 7 contains nutrient requirements for 1.7 pounds of gain.

Also, special attention must be given to vaccination programs. All replacements should be calfhood vaccinated by a veterinarian for brucellosis between two and six months of age. Other vaccin-ations such as blackleg, pasteurella, Lepto, IBR, PI-3, BVD, Haemophilus Somnus, rota and corona viruses and syncytial virus should be carried out under the supervision and after discussing with your local veterinarian. Refer to table 6 for suggested ages for the various vaccinations.

Feeding

As stated earlier calves do better and grow faster when handled in groups. The following is a brief description of how heifers may be handled according to age or weight.

Sixty Days to Six Months (150-350 pounds)

The early weaned heifers need clean, mold free good quality grass or legume hay, shelter to protect against rain and cold in winter and sun in summer. The total diet should contain approximately 67 percent total digestible nutrients (TDN), 13-14 percent crude protein and contain 60-65 percent grain. Replacements this age and size usually will not consume sufficient energy if the diet is higher than 50 percent forage and moisture (too much silage or dependance on pasture). A suggested grain mix for heifers post-weaning that may be fed with coastal bermudagrass or fescue is shown in Table 8.

Calves should consume approximately three pounds of hay and five pounds of the above grain mix to gain 1.7 pounds per day. The roughage to grain ratio would be 36:64.

Six to Nine Months (350-500 pounds)

Calves this size should be fed like the previous group, but constant care must be given to assure that they remain free of internal and external parasites. Heifers in this group may begin to make good use of temporary grazing and well managed permanent pasture. Also, heifers in this group may begin to consume some silage. Some example rations are shown in Tables 28 through 34.

Nine to Fifteen Months (500-800 pounds)

Like the previous group, heifers this age and size are able to handle diets higher in moisture and forage. Still caution must be exercised in being sure the energy and protein requirements are met. Because a larger amount of forage is usually fed to this group of animals, the protein content of the grain mix still should be approximately 18 percent except when grazing something like ryegrass or vegetative wheat during fall or early spring. Animals grazing vegetative wheat and ryegrass likely can get by with a 10-12 percent crude protein grain mix. Depending on the quality of the forage, 5-6 pounds of grain will likely be enough to keep heifers growing at 1.5 -1.7 pounds per day. If feeding a grain mix separately (not mixed with forage) be careful to provide adequate trough space to prevent older and larger animals from dominating younger, smaller animals and prevent them from consuming needed nutrients. Some example rations using various combinations of grazing, hay and silage are shown for 600 and 750 pounds replacement heifers in Appendix Table 3. Again these rations were formulated for heifers to gain 1.7 pounds per day. Their performance is best measured by actually weighing or taping periodically to be sure they are growing at the desired rate.

Health and Housing

Replacements this age and size generally are not bothered too much by health considerations and disease. Routine treatment for internal and external parasites and daily observance for injuries are the primary considerations. Heifers should be immunized for Lepto at 9-12 months of age prior to breeding at 14-15 months. Heifers this size require very little if any shelter during winter in Georgia but would benefit by having shade available in the summer. Also, heifers should be observed closely in spring and summer for foot rot; mud and wet conditions may exist in shady places where heifers congregate. Foot rot can develop into a nasty situation quickly and result in significant economic loss if not quickly identified and treated.

Management Procedures

A capable, dependable person who is well trained in calf raising and management should be assigned the task of raising the future dairy herd. Timing and sanitation need to be given top priority in the daily calf feeding and management procedure.

It is of utmost importance that the unweaned calf be checked completely at least twice daily. Any abnormal or sick calf should be isolated, treated, and checked hourly, if necessary, until its health has returned to normal. The following general rules, if adhered to daily, will prevent calf losses and promote normal development of the young dairy replacements:

• Observe condition of hair and eyes (dullness and brightness).
• Observe appetite at each feeding twice daily, also nature and consistency of droppings.
• Check for external and internal parasites.
• Note if there is coughing -- possible respiratory disorder.
• Be alert to change in calf's temperature. Normal temperature is 101.5 - 102.5 degrees F. Temperatures may be sub-normal or as high as 107.0 degrees F. Check for panting.
• Check hay, bedding, water, salt, and mineral supply.
• Keep feed troughs clean.
• Calves should be checked occasionally for normal growth by using a livestock tape to measure the heart girth. (See Table 10.)
• Turn suspicious calves out of individual pens to check for abnormal gait, kicking at stomach which may indicate torsion, limping for foot rot, or other abnormalities.
• Check sick calves four times daily and isolate them to prevent disease from spreading.
• Immunize and routinely treat according to the veterinarian's recommendations.
• Request that the veterinarian check the entire herd periodically, including calves, to locate minor problems and to prevent serious outbreaks.

Many kinds of equipment are needed for the care, treatment, and management of calves and heifers. Failure to have the equipment conveniently arranged and readily available often contributes to higher calf losses.

The following items of equipment are needed at or near the calf barn:

• Halters
• Cotton rope
• Small balling gun
• Rectal thermometer
• Dehorners or caustic paste
• Veterinary supplies as advised by the attending veterinarian
• Hurdles, Chutes, holding pens with cutting gates
• Freeze branding iron set
• Dipping vat
• Tattoo outfit (rotary)
• Hoof trimmers
• Milk scales
• Dosing syringe
• Scales - 1000 pound capacity
• Heart-girth weight tape
• Stanchions for 25 heifer capacity
• Large and small animal electric clippers

Permanent Identification

Every calf, bull, and heifer should be identified at birth with a visible herd number. The last calf born should receive the highest number. There should never under any conditions be a duplication of identification.

The calf should be tattooed before it is a month old. For convenience in DHIA production testing, the heifer should be branded on each thigh by either freeze branding or hot branding. (See Extension Bulletin No. 718.) This system insures a visible, permanent brand that guarantees accuracy of heat dates, breeding dates, calving dates, and all other management records related to the cow, such as monthly DHIA milk weights.

When a calf is born, an individual lifetime record card may be established for the heifer. These cards are usually kept in a portable box to be used by the herdsman and veterinarian as a lifetime health record and as a current herd inventory. The portable box of records can be moved to any point on the farm where the veterinarian and herdsman are working cattle.

The portable record box system serves as a daily inventory for the herd. The cards may be conveniently arranged in to the various classes and ages of cattle in the herd, such as lactating and dry.

Daily dairy cattle management is based largely on the herdsman's ability to identify each individual animal on the farm on sight, regardless of herd size. The genetic production and type superiority of any animal are ultimately determined by the accuracy of the herd records and individual cow indentification.

The record system described in this publication is a basic requirement of all breeders of purebred cattle.

Calf Health Program

A high percentage (98-99) of the calf crop is raised to maturity when the herdsman prevents diseases and abnormal conditions from affecting his calf and heifer herd. The herdsman-calf raiser is under constant pressure to recognize any health problem and abnormal condition in his calf herd within the first half-day that it occurs. He should take preventive or remedial action on the health problem immediately. Failure to do so can only compound the problem.

There are many diseases, parasites, and abnormal conditions which may affect the calf and heifer herd. The dairyman-herdsman should work closely with his veterinarian in recognizing the symptoms of each health abnormality. He should also understand which of the diseases are the most serious (contagious) and the potential economic loss of each.

The following list is provided as a guide to the herdsman in his daily attempt to recognize health problems:

The following points should be discussed with the attending veterinarian in the development of an immunizations program for a calf herd:

• Are replacements raised on the farm or purchased?
• What diseases are now known to infect the herd?
• Will the herd be increased in size by purchased cattle?
• What diseases are prominent in the community, county, and state?
• Have any cattle been purchased in the past five years?
• Does your farm have a show herd?

The major calf disease problems in Georgia are diarrhea (scours) and pneumonia. If these losses could be avoided, three-fourths of all calf deaths would be prevented.

The following diseases usually are successfully prevented by vaccination, and most dairymen routinely vaccinate for these diseases.

Consult the attending veterinarian relative to immunization for other diseases based on the herd situation -- whether the herd is "closed," or if there is considerable movement of cattle to fairs, or cattle are purchased frequently.

The Dehydrated Calf

The excessive loss of body fluids by young calves is usually preceded by acute diarrhea (scours). The herdsman should make a decision on the degree of dehydration within 3-6 hours of the onset of a severe illness, from any cause, to ensure calf livability. The dehydrated calf is sick from two causes: infection and dehydration. Both conditions must be alleviated in 24-48 hours or death will result. See Table 9.

Dehydration occurs during acute scours because of fluids and nutrients moving through the calf as diarrhea and urine. Nutrients and fluids are not absorbed from the intestinal tract, and the calf starves to death.

Temperature readings should always be taken by the herdsman when a calf looks abnormal. The calf with scours may have a temperature chart as shown in Figure 3 as dehydration progresses.

Figure 3. Temperature Variation in the Dehydrated Calf According to the Number of Hours

Why does the calf starve? Figure 4 is a picture diagram of the calf's intestine (ABCD) with site of absorption shown. In the normal, healthy calf, water and nutrients are readily absorbed through the micro-villi after the lactase enzyme breaks down the milk sugar (lactose) to glucose and galactose, which can readily be absorbed into the calf's blood stream. Thus, nutrients may be transported to all parts of the calf's body for normal maintenance and growth.

Figure 4. Action of Scours on the Calf's Intestinal Tract

When a calf has scours (example: coliform bacteria), the milk sugar reacts with the coliform bacteria, thus providing nutrition for the growth of the bacteria plus an acid by-product. As a result of this reaction many of the micro-villi are destroyed, and the calf's ability to absorb nutrients and water from the intestinal tract into its bloodstream and body tissues is drastically reduced.

The reaction in the calf's intestine is as follows:

• Lactase Enzyme + Lactose (milk sugar) glucose absorbed into calf's blood stream.
• Coliform Bacteria (Manure) + Milk Sugar + Coliform growth + Acid Micro-villi destroyed Calf starves for energy (glucose.)
• Calf dehydrates from muscles to intestines from the effect of diarrhea.

Thus, dehydration results from the original diarrhea problem. The best procedure for treating the calf affected with milk diarrhea is to add 1/2 to 1 teaspoon of soda and table salt to milk twice daily at the first signs of scours to supplement the treatment being used for scours.

If it is apparent that no progress is being made, use the following procedure for treating the calf with acute diarrhea:

• First 24 hours -- 100% fluid therapy (electrolyte) or two quarts of fluids every three hours.
• Second 24 hours -- 75% fluids and 25% milk.
• Third 24 hours -- 33 1/3% fluids and 66 2/3% milk.
• Fourth 24 hours -- 100% milk diets.

There are many commercially available electrolyte diets which can be used for dehydrated calves.

Dehorning

Calves may be dehorned with caustic potash or electric dehorners. If caustic potash is used, dehorning must be done within two weeks of age or as soon as the horn buttons are easily felt.

Electric dehorning may be delayed unit calves are about a month old. The electric dehorner is similar to large soldering iron and is placed over the horn button to destroy the horny tissue and prevent the horns from growing.

Using one of the above procedures allows the dairyman to get this necessary job done while the calves are small and easy to handle. Also, horns never develop and do not cause unnecessary injuries after the calves get older. Be sure to follow the manufacturer's recommendations when using either caustic potash or electric dehorners.

Management of Breeding Age Heifer

Puberty occurs in the growing heifer when normal sexual behavior and ovulation occurs. The onset of puberty is closely related to body size. When heifers reach 30-40% of their mature size, puberty will occur. Heifers should be ready to breed at 14-15 months to have them calve at 24 months of age and enter the milking herd. Previous feeding management should have heifers weighing 750-800 pounds for Holstein and Brown Swiss, 650 to 700 pounds for Aryshire and Guernsey and 500 to 600 pounds for Jersey.

If a herd emphasizes a fall calving season or wants to change season of calving, then grouping of heifers to calve at the desired time is the easiest procedure. If heifers are to be bred at older ages, care must be taken that they are allowed to continue to grow but not gain excessive body fat.

Breeding

Artificial insemination can be used with heifers. Frequent heat detection and recording of heats is required to be successful. Synchronization is often used when a large group of heifers are to be bred or a desired period of calving is wanted. Crayons, chalk, heat mount detectors or surgically altered bulls with chin ball markers can be used to improve heat detection.

Adequate facilities to restrain heifers for breeding are needed. These can also be used for health treatment.

Nutrition

Good quality forage can supply the heifers needs at this stage. Free-choice forage programs such as pasture or hay can be used. Silage usually cannot be fed free-choice because of excess energy especially in corn silage. Silage may be limit fed or fed in small amounts with pasture.

Small amounts of grain may be needed in order to maintain adequate growth during periods of old growth pasture, limited pasture due to drought or overgrazing or poor quality hay and silage. This grain can also serve as a carrier for minerals and vitamins and ionophores (rumensen or lasalocid). Usually 1-3 pounds of grain may be required with good forage and 3-5 pounds of grain with average forage. The protein and energy content of the grain will depend upon the quality of the forage and animal requirements.

Housing

Shade will be beneficial for animals in summer but no special housing requirement exists unless animals are in total confinement. Animals raised in large groups in a dry lot situation will perform well with shade, water and adequate feeding area. Animals on pasture need access to a good water supply.

Management of the Bred Heifer

After the heifer becomes pregnant, management does not change until the last three months of pregnancy. During this time, the fetus grows about 2/3 of its size and the heifer may require extra nutrients to support its growth and the fetus' growth. This usually results in the feeding of an extra 1-2 pounds of grain. Animals should be grouped so only those heifers in late pregnancy will receive the grain.

If added nutrients are not supplied, then growth may be slowed resulting in undersized heifers or low-birth weight calves. Excess feed will result in fat heifers that could lead to calving difficulties, metabolic problems and lowered milk production.

At 21-30 days before calving, heifers should be separated and placed in a clean, dry environment to help prevent disease and mastitis. Heifers should be fed the same forages and grains they will receive in the milking herd. Intake of corn silage and alfalfa should be limited. Grain intake should be 5-6 pounds but salt and minerals may need to be limited to prevent udder edema. Calcium and phosphorus should be fed at a 1:1 ratio so the milking herd grain mix may cause milk fever if fed because it usually is a 2:1 ratio.

If possible, allow heifers to become familiar with the milking herd surroundings as it will help to eliminate the stress of calving and entering the milking herd.

Calving problems may occur more frequently with heifers due to their size. Calving ease (or low-birth weight) sires should be used. Frequent observations are needed to spot trouble and prevent problems.

Management of Veal Calf

Veal production is limited in the Southeast. Two main limitations are the availability of calves and a local market for the finished animal. The veal calf is usually the male of the Holstein breed. Most dairy farmers sell these calves as 3 day old. It is critical that these calves have received colostrum, but since the farmer is going to sell them it is often forgotten.

The veal calf is raised like a replacement heifer except it is kept on milk replacer until slaughter. Typically this is at 16 weeks and approximately 400 pounds. There has been the development recently of a "red" veal market where calves receive grain with the milk replacer. This provides iron and minimizes the anemia of the veal calf.

Housing

Veal calves are housed in individual pens in well ventilated barns. Air movement should be adequate to maintain a fresh air supply but not chill the calf. Humidity should be maintained between 40-60% for young calves and 40-70% after calves reach one month of age. Temperature should be between 50-70 degrees Farenheight. Natural ventilation can be used if it will meet these specifications.

Calves normally are housed in elvated individual pens. The floor should be slotted hardwork with the slots running across the pen. Spacing should be a minimum of 1" to a maximum of 1 3/4". Air circulation and cleaning will be enhanced with the elevated pens. Pen size should be 24" x 64".

For economic reasons, a group usually consists of 110 calves which will make a semi-truck load for slaughter. Ideally, all of the calves should be within a few days of age. This results in calves from several farms coming together and often being trucked long distances. It is important to get calves on feed. Cleanliness, light and ventilation will help to stop the spread of disease.

Nutrition

Milk replacer is used in most veal programs. Starter diets are rich in fat (20%) and protein (24%). At approximately 35 days of age, the protein drops to 18% and fat drops to 18%. At 72 days of age, protein level is 16% and fat is 18% until slaughter. This enables the calf to grow rapidly, as he is growing 50% faster than the replacement heifer. Antibiotics are often added to the feed to promote growth and feed efficiency but care must be taken that residues are not present. This can result from overdoses, improper drugs or lack of withdrawal time.

Water is critical to maintaining the growth and health of the veal calf. Fresh water should be available to the calf. Also most systems use a flush system to remove manure.

Group Pens

Group pens can be used to house veal calves. A minimum of 15 square feet of floor space per calf is recommended. Animals need to be watched carefully as disease can often go undetected and spread rapidly. With group pens many producers use a self feeding system that has acidified milk replacers. This works well with good management and observation.

Management

Management is critical, especially during the first few weeks of getting calves in and adjusted. Profit or loss in the operation will mainly depend upon survival of calves and their quality. (See Budgets.)

Budgets

As a guide, several budgets are presented for heifer raising and veal production.

The budgets are based upon research data from several areas of the United States. These trials monitored heifer growth and feed intake from birth to calving. The budgets are based upon several forages: (1) Coastal Bermudagrass Hay, (2) Corn Silage and grass hay, (3) Corn Silage with NPN, (4) Alfalfa hay, (5) Alfalfa hay and corn silage (all calving at 25 months), (6) Alfalfa hay and corn silage and (7) Pasture (both calving at 31 months). Land requirements were also calculated and put into budgets. Basis of production is in Table 9. Pasture production was calculated at 70% of hay production and 70% consumed which equals 50% of hay production/acre.

Death loss for the heifer budget is calculated as 2/3 occurring before weaning. This equals milk cost plus 5% of grain cost. The rest of the death loss is 1/3 after weaning which equals 40% of feed cost.

The veal budgets are based upon a 110 calves per barn that is filled three times per year. Management level reflects death loss and down grades.

There are situations where it is not feasible to raise heifers. An option to consider would be contract raising of heifers. This would allow the dairyman to utilize labor, feed and facilities for the milking herd but still bring in known heifers to the herd. Contracts can be based upon weight gain and/or time. The goal should be to calve heifers at 24 months, the same as raising them yourself.

Contracts need to specify who is responsible for different activities, means of termination and arbitration for disputes.

Rations

Rations for heifers based upon different forages are in the following tables. Rations were calculated for 1.6 pounds of gain for different weight groups. These rations can be used as guidelines. For actual feeding programs, forage tests should be taken and rations balanced. It is critical that rations are balanced to obtain the most efficient performance.